Welcome to SpeedRead!   Following on from reader feedback -- incidentally, I'd love to hear yours -- and consultation with friends and colleagues, one point has come to light: although most were impressed by the depth of information on the site, they were sometimes overwhelmed by the sheer length of some of the pages.   It seems that, although my original attempts to break up the information has helped, several people have expressed an interest in a summary of the information; a "quick fix" if you like.   Well, here is my on-going attempt to provide just that.   Below are brief (no longer than two A4 pages of text) summaries of the biology, ecology and behaviour of the main species covered on the site.   Please excuse the clastic sentence fragments and lack of clause analysis, but this is meant to provide a quick and simple overview of the facts.   At the bottom of each section is a link that will take you to the relevant full article, should you wish to indulge your curiosity further.   I am interested to hear feedback on this little project; these and any queries or questions can be directed to the usual address.

Select a species:

Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)
European Badger (Meles meles)
Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)
Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)
Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)
Fallow Deer (Dama dama)
Sika Deer (Cervus nippon)
Reeve's Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
European Mole (Talpa europaea)
Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus)
Tawny Owl (Strix aluco)
Barn Owl (Tyto alba)
Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus)
Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)
Little Owl (Athene noctua)
European Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)
 

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Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Size: 60 – 90cm (2ft – 3 ft) head & body length; can reach 1.65m (5.4 ft) including tail.   In Britain, average weight of adult male is around 6.5kg (14 lbs), while adult females are approx. 5.5kg (12 lbs).   The global range for adults is 3 – 16kg (6.6 – 35lbs).  Larger animals (20kg / 41 lbs or more) have been reported, but remain unverified.

Colour: Highly variable; can range from yellow-red to black (‘silver’).   Most common characteristic is white chin & underside with white tip to the tail & amber eyes.   Four main colour phases (Red, White, Silver & Cross), which are genetically inherited.

Distribution: UK & most of Europe, North Africa, North America, Canada as far north as some arctic islands, & parts of Asia.   Also found throughout China, northern India & Australia (introduced for hunting).

Longevity: Oldest (captive) animal 15 years.   Typically, foxes live for only 2 years (esp. in urban environment), although more generally a range of 2 to 8 years can be expected.   Upper limit in wild is 6 or 8 years.

Sexing: Very little sexual dimorphism (i.e. sexes look very similar).   Males (dogs), on average larger than females (vixens), with broader heads & longer, narrower snouts than females.

Activity: Predominantly crepuscular & nocturnal (active at dusk, night & dawn); can be seen diurnally (daytime) lying in thick vegetation or patrolling territories – diurnal activity may be more common in urban environments during cub-rearing months.

Dens: Use dens (referred to as “earths”) predominantly during cub-rearing months, although may be used outside this period.  May lie up in vegetation or in sunny spots (such as on shed roofs or in trees).   Natal den sought during February.   Several dens may exist per territory.

Territory: Substantial variation by habitat (resource-based).  Rural foxes commonly have territories between 200 & 600 ha. (500 – 1,500 acres), extending to 4,000 ha (10,000 ac.) in poor Scottish Highlands.   Urban foxes tend to forage over smaller areas; less than 60 ha (150 ac. or ¹/₄ sq-mi.).   Territories often composed of two areas; larger (home range) area containing a smaller (core area) territory.   Home ranges may overlap with neighbours; core areas don’t –violently defended against interlopers.

Diet: Varied – highly opportunitistic.   Mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, fish, amphibians, fruit, vegetables, grass & human rubbish.

Reproduction: Breeding season late December to February.  Cubs (ave. 4 to 6) born March to late April (peak mid-March). Cubs presented with solid food from 3 wks old & emerge from den in early May (~ 6 wks old).   Cubs weaned by about 8 wks old.   Independent by 3 to 5 months; family unit breaks down from September onwards.

Behaviour & Sociality: Normally solitary (or in pairs); can occur in family groups where resources allow (e.g. urban areas).   Have been associated with attacks on pets/livestock & damage to gardens.   Calling rare outside of mating season.

Threats: Hunted for sport throughout much of range.  Many killed by cars in towns & cities.  Mange has decreased numbers recently.  Predators of adults in UK non-existent; elsewhere predators include wolves & lynx.

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European Badger (Meles meles)

Size: Adults usually 70 to 100 cm (2 – 3¹/₂ ft) long.  Weight varies seasonally; adults usually 6 to 7 kg (13 – 15 lbs) in summer & 12 to 14 kg (26 – 31 lbs) in winter.   Average adult weight in autumn is about 12kg; that for spring is circa 9kg (20 lbs).

Colour: Silvery-grey to black body & tail with paler stomach (thin white abdominal fur) & dark paws.  Easily identified by characteristic black-and-white striped face (mask) & white margins to their ears.  White (inc. albino), dark & red colour phases known.

Distribution: Most of Europe (excl. north Scandinavia, Iceland, Corsica, Sardinia & Sicily) & parts of Asia as far east as China.

Longevity: Average lifespan 2 years, may be 7 or 8 in wild; can live for almost 20 years in captivity.

Sexing: Sexual differentiation arguable; no accurate way of sexing without direct physical contact.  Males = Boars; Females = Sows.

Activity: Primarily nocturnal (with some crepuscular tendencies); time of emergence may relate to level of persecution.   Often torporic for parts of winter, but do not truly hibernate.

Dens: Referred to as “setts”.  Can be extensive, with primary sett (several entrances) & subsidiary setts throughout territory.  Regularly change bedding (dried leaves & grass).

Territory: Territories of 20 to 50 ha (50 – 124 ac.) common in rich habitats; 150 ha (370 ac.) or more in poorer regions.  Group (clan) may average 10-or-more in parts of Britain (solitary or pairs throughout most of range), which defend territory aggressively.   Territory marked with scent (latrines).

Diet: Broad, opportunistic diet – includes: earthworms (predominantly in UK), cereals, small mammals (esp. hedgehogs), amphibians, insects, fruit & plant bulbs/roots.  Have been implicated in bird nest predation.

Reproduction: Mating can occur during any month (bulk February to May).  Embryonic diapause yields mid-January to mid-March (peak early Feb.) born young.  Litter size average 2; up to 6 cubs.  Cubs appear above ground late-April/early-May (~ 8wks old) & can take solid food at 5 or 6 months old.   Mature at 12 to 15 months old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary or in pairs; exist in large clans where resources allow (no sign of cooperation within clan).  No obvious pecking order observed (although considered probable).  Scent highly important to sociality; clan members mark each other with secretions from subcaudal glands.  WildCRU documented 16 acoustically-distinct calls from badgers at Wytham Woods (Oxford).  Peak period for dispersal is late June through to August/September.

Threats: Widely culled in response to bovine tuberculosis control.  No natural predators.   High numbers killed on the roads – especially cubs during the summer.  Protected by law in the UK.

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Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)

Size: Max. length about 45cm (18 in.), of which up to 20cm (8 in.) may be tail.  Commonly, ~ 21cm (8in.) inc. tail.

Colour: Highly variable; range from black to dull yellowy-brown (“buff”), covering most shades of red & brown. Albinos rare; melanistic (black) common in some regions (e.g. continental Europe), rare in UK.

Distribution: Throughout Europe & Asia, from ~70^oN to 30^oN; Britain & China represent limits of range.  Within UK, still reasonably widespread through S. & E. Scotland, & much (excl. far west) of Ireland.   Also found in isolated pockets of England (e.g. Brownsea Island & Isle of Wight) & three distinct populations in Wales.

Longevity: Max. (captivity) is 10 years.  In wild, average is 3 yrs; max. in wild probably 7 yrs.

Sexing: Impossible at distance; during breeding season close inspection reveals swollen, darkly stained testes.  Distance between genital openings can be used to sex squirrels during handling.

Activity: Diurnal (daytime) species, emerging ~30 min. after sunrise.  Bimodal activity periods during the summer (morning & evening) & unimodal in winter (morning).

Dens: Referred to as “dreys”; usually in trees (occasionally on ground).  Composed of leaves & twigs; lined with moss.  Roughly spherical & typically 30cm (1ft.) diameter.  Nursing females may have several dreys in area to facilitate moving young when threatened.

Territory: Range over ave. 70 ha (range 20-100; up to 247 ac); have “core areas” of intense use & these areas will be defended against intruders.  Territory establishment essential for successful reproduction.  Territory quality directly impacts fecundity.

Diet: Primarily seeds & plant matter, incl. berries & fruit.  Opportunists; diet includes fungi, nuts, seeds, bark, sap, soil (minerals?), roots, cereals, insects (incidental?), bird chicks & eggs.

Reproduction: Females polyoestrus with bimodal peaks: winter (Dec.-Mar.) mating produces young in spring (Mar.-May); spring mating yields young during summer (July-Sept.).  Gestation 36 to 42 days (depending on weather & food).  Ave. litter is 3 young (kittens).   Young outside at 7 wks; fully weaned by 10 wks & independent at 12 to 16 wks.  Sexually mature at 6 months old.   Breeding heavily influenced by mast crop.

Behaviour & Sociality: Primarily solitary; drey sharing known, individuals seem familiar with each other.  Hierarchy system known between & within sexes; males not necessarily dominant to females.  Peak dispersal in autumn (some in summer & spring).  Spend less time on ground than Greys.  Emit various acoustically distinct calls; foot stomping, tail flicking & chasing my accompany agonistic calls.  During breeding season, single female may be pursued by several males. Chasing, chattering & tail-flicking often witnessed during mating chases.

Threats: Large numbers killed on roads & by viruses (such as squirrelpox).  Habitat loss, encroachment by Greys & changes to habitat management also implicated in species decline.  Historically persecuted as pest to forestry.  Globally, predators include foxes, wildcats, martens, goshawks, raptors (esp. buzzards), stoats, coyotes, snakes & bobcats.

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Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)

Size: Max. 55cm (~2ft), of which 25cm (10 in.) may be tail; average about 26cm (~1ft) including tail.  Weigh from 400 to 700 grams (14–25 oz.), with most specimens across Europe between 450 & 650g (16 – 23 oz.); average about 550g (19 ½ oz. – seasonally variable) in UK.

Colour: Typically grey-backed, grey tails & white (or significantly lighter) underside; flanks vary from grey to dusky red.  Melanistic & albino Greys rare; white individuals may be locally common.

Distribution: Native to NE America; introduced to Britain.  In UK, Greys found throughout England, although they’re absent from Isle of Wight & apparently scarce from north Pennines to Southern Uplands (ca. 56^o to 54^o N).  Fragmented populations exist in Scotland, Wales & Ireland.

Longevity: Oldest captive specimen was 20 yrs; Wild ave. 4-5 yrs for females & 2-3 yrs for males.

Sexing: Impossible at distance; during breeding season close inspection reveals swollen testes.  Distance between genital openings can be used to sex squirrels during handling.

Activity: Diurnal; seasonally sporadic activity patterns. Active throughout day during autumn; activity diminishes to about 4 hours or less (mornings) in winter, before increasing again to between 3 & 8 hours -- frequently bimodal -- in spring & summer

Dens: Referred to as “dreys”, usually in trees (occasionally on ground).  Composed of leaves & twigs; lined with moss.  Roughly spherical & typically 30cm (1ft.) diameter.  Nursing females may have several dreys in area to facilitate moving young when threatened.

Territory: Range over between 2 & 10 hectares (5 to 25 ac.) for most of year, but males may cover more than 100 ha (247 ac.) during mating season.  Defend core area from intruders; parts of range may overlap.

Diet: Primarily seeds & plant matter, incl. berries & fruit.  Opportunists; diet includes fungi, nuts, seeds, bark, sap, soil (minerals?), roots, cereals, insects (incidental?), bird chicks & eggs & human rubbish.

Reproduction: Produce 1 or 2 (if mating begins in December) litters of 2 to 4 kittens (ave. 3, max. 8), following 42 to 45 day gestation.  Litters produced during spring if good crop of mast, or summer/autumn if crop less bountiful – occasionally, litter in both seasons.  Kittens eat solid food & leave drey at about 7 wks; weaned by 10 wks.  Sexually mature at 10 months to 1 yr old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Primarily solitary; drey sharing known, individuals seem familiar with each other.  Hierarchy system known between & within sexes; males not necessarily dominant to females.  Peak dispersal in autumn (some in summer & spring).  Spend more time on ground than Reds.  Emit several acoustically distinct calls; foot stomping, tail flicking & chasing my accompany agonistic calls.  During breeding season, single female may be pursued by several males. Chasing, chattering & tail-flicking often witnessed during mating chases.

Threats: Widely persecuted in the UK as part of Red squirrel conservation plans – implicated in Red squirrel & native bird decline.  Many killed on roads.  Persecuted as a pest to forestry.  Globally, predators include foxes, wildcats, martens, goshawks, raptors, stoats, coyotes, snakes & bobcats.

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European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)

Size: Range from 24 to 35cm (9 ½ - 14 in.) long; 2 to 5 cm (1 – 2 in.) is tail.  Weigh between 500g (1 lb) & nearly 2 kg (4 ½ lb); weight varies according to sex & season.

Colour: Spines (up to 7,000 on adult) on back, hair on underside.  Generally brown in colour; spines have white/cream band.  Leucistic individuals (white or pale yellow spines) known; partially leucistic & albino animals rare.  No melanistic animals reported.

Distribution: Widespread (although perhaps declining) throughout lowlands of Britain (every county & most offshore islands), across much of western Europe north to southern Scandinavia & Finland, south to Mediterranean – found along treelines up to 2,000 m.

Longevity: Aging difficult.  Oldest captive specimen 15 yrs.  Ave. age in wild widely cited as 5 or 6 yrs, although reality probably closer to 3 yrs; the upper age limit in wild is probably 6 to 8 yrs.

Sexing: Impossible at distance.  Penis situated approx. medially (where one might expect to see a belly button)

Activity: Nocturnal (some crepuscular or diurnal tendencies in sick or nursing hogs).  Range up to 1km per night.  Hibernate during winter if climate requires.

Dens: Build summer & winter (hibernacula) nests.  Summer nests flimsy cf. hibernacula.  May lie up in long grass during daytime in summer; typically exhibit low nest fidelity.

Territory: Solitary, with no evidence of territoriality.  May range over relatively constant area (of up to 32 ha/79 ac. in males & 10 ha/25 ac. in females).  Some scraps have been observed at feeding stations, but confrontation possibly avoided through scent-mediated mutual avoidance.

Diet: Adult beetles, earwigs & earthworms comprise bulk (~85%) of diet.  Also take caterpillars, slugs, snails, bees, wasps, grasshoppers, centipedes, millipedes, flies & larvae.  Plant material rare.  Some evidence to suggest attacks on vertebrates (e.g. frogs, birds & small rodents) & raiding of bird nests for eggs.

Reproduction: In UK breeding season (“rut”) runs from mid May to late September.  Peak births probably June/July, although some studies show peak courtship during August, leading to peak pregnancy during September.  Mating usually preceded by aggressive courtship, involving circling, butting & grunting.  Females polyoestrus; in favourable conditions can produce 2 litters.  Ave. litter 4 or 5 (range = 2 to 11) after ~35 day gestation.  Leave nest to forage with mother at 4 or 5 wks old (late-July); weaned by 6 to 8 wks & independent by 4 months.  Late litters (“autumn ophans”) may have insufficient time to fatten up prior to hibernation.

Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary; often intolerant of conspecifics, although may tolerate company at feeding stations.  Intriguing behaviour reported includes self-anointing (covering spines in frothy saliva-stimulant mix), running in circles, attacks on snakes, suckling from cows & carrying off fruit on spines – the latter two are widely considered unlikely.

Threats: Seemingly in decline throughout much of UK, although data are lacking.  Many killed on roads; strimmers, tidy gardens, bonfires & insecticides/molluscicides widely considered detrimental to population.  High level of predation by badgers.  Persecuted locally where implicated in bird declines.  Protected by law in much of Europe.

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Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

Size: Adults usually between 1.7 & 2.6 m (5 ½ to  8 ½  ft) long; full-grown stag stands about 1.2 m (4ft) at the shoulder, while hinds are slightly smaller, at 1 m.  Weight 90 to 260 kg (200 – 570 lbs) – seasonally variable.

Colour: Red-brown summer coat; grey-brown winter coat.  Rump patch yellowish colour; stags (males) develop mane during winter.  Stags have large antlers that are shed & re-grown each year.

Distribution: Found throughout Europe; introduced to parts of America, New Zealand & Australia.   In UK (navitve), most common in the Scottish Highlands, although they do exist in isolated pockets across the island.  Population estimated at 350,000+; growing at ca. 0.3% per year.

Longevity: Max. age limit considered to be ~25 years; records of wild individuals living beyond 13 to 15 years are rare

Sexing: During much of year males can be identified by presence (or development) of antlers.  Females tend to be of slighter build than males.

Activity: Primarily crepuscular; may be seen resting, grazing or wallowing during the daytime.  Some evidence of nocturnal activity in heavily persecuted populations.

Habitat: Spend daytime on open, grassy hillsides, moving to woodland at night.  In Scotland during summer, primary daytime habitat is high ground with new heather growth; typically, move to lower ground during winter.  Sexes live apart during most of year; hinds monopolize grassy area, stags confined to nutrient-poorer heather regions.

Territory: Non-territorial, although will defend groups of females (and thus area on which they graze) from competitors during rutting (breeding) season.  Establish “stands” during the rut, which comprise a group of females that the stag will move with and defend against other males.  Outside of rutting season, males move in loose groups.  Home range varies according to habitat (smaller in woodland) & feeding & resting stations; may vary sexually (e.g. Scottish highlands males = 800 ha/2,000 ac.; females = 400 ha/988 ac.) & seasonally.

Diet: Opportunistic omnivores.  Diet includes: grasses, heather, lichen, shoots, bark, leaves, herbs, rushes, buds, nuts, fungi, fruit & berries.  Diet changes seasonally (e.g. grasses, sedges & rushes in summer, shrubs in winter).  Carnivory known.

Reproduction: Rutting season covers later September to late October (peak around 10th October), with a single (rarely twins) calf produced after 8 month gestation.  Most calves born in June, but may start as early as May.  Calf suckled for ~6 to 9 months & is independent at about 1 year old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Hinds live in groups for most of the year (leaving only to have young).   Hierarchical system present; single dominant hind with her yearlings & mature daughters from previous matings (possibly with own offspring).  Males spend most of the year either solitarily or in small 'unstable' bachelor groups and feed voraciously during spring & summer.  Males become antisocial during breeding season, engaging in roaring contests and parallel walking; disputes involve rearing on hind legs & kicking with front feet (when antlers developing) & locking of antlers (once antlers mature).   Males and females known to use mud wallows.

Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK.   Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer.  Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees & flowers.  Possibly biggest threat to species as a whole is the hybridization with Sika deer - two species can cross-breed to produce fertile offspring.  Currently mixed data on the spread of Sika genes in the Red gene pool.

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Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)

Size: Adults between 95cm & 1.3 m (3 – 4 ft) long; males (bucks) stand 64 to 67 cm (2 ft) at shoulder.   Weight between 15 to 35 kg (33 – 77 lbs).

Colour: Red-brown coat in summer, grey-brown in winter; white rump; tail virtually absent.

Distribution: Common (native) throughout UK (except Ireland) & Europe except Iceland, northern Scandinavia & Mediterranean Islands; range extends east to Asia.   Apparently absent from areas of the midlands and Wales.  Population increase estimated at ca. 2.3% per year; current population around 800,000+.

Longevity: Ave. in wild 5 to 7 years, with max. wild of about 12 yrs.  Max. age of 20 yrs (in captivity).

Sexing: Males have antlers, which grow to max. ~30cm with 3 tines per antler typical; antlers grown in winter & shed during autumn.  Sexed by shape of rump patch; females (does) have tail-like mass of hair at the base of tuft (called the "tush"), bucks don’t.

Activity: Feed throughout day & night, but peak of activity is crepuscular.  Long periods where deer “lie up” to ruminate.

Habitat: Spend much of time in shelter of woodland or upland areas; will move to long grass & shrubby undergrowth for browsing; make more use of open spaces at night.   Found in farmland.

Territory: Maintain exclusive territory during mid-July to mid-August (rut), may begin establishing territories during late May.  Home range varies with season & sex (5 to 100 ha / 12 – 247 ac.).  In good habitat defended territory ave. ~ 7 ha (non-territorial males ave. ~15 ha / 37 ac.); does ave. ~7 ha (17 ac.), which overlaps with related individuals.

Diet: Herbs, bramble, tree shoots, flowers & ivy.  Some evidence that food selected based on nutritional value.

Reproduction: Rut runs from mid-July to mid-August (peak around 7th August).  During rut, buck will usually mate with several does.  One or two kids produced after 6 or 7 month (diapause during winter) gestation; peak kid birth in late May/early June - twins common, triplets occasional.  Kids lie in grass for first week; suckled for first 2-3 months & independent by following spring (1 year old).

Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary; may form groups during winter; does frequently accompanied by kids & home ranges may overlap with other females.  Any sociality seems scent-mediated.  Bucks may fray trees & shrubs with antler & face glands during the rut.  Bark, especially at dawn and dusk, when disturbed - not descriptive of sex, although males tend to bark more than females.

Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK.   Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer.  Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees & flowers.  Study in Sweden found high kid mortality from agricultural mowers.  Some evidence that they may be displaced by Muntjac (number ~20% lower when Muntiacus present) and less competitive in habitat containing Fallow, Sika and, especially in conifer plantations, Red deer.

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Fallow Deer (Dama dama)

Size: Adults 1.3 to 1.7 m (4 – 5 ½ ft) long; buck (male) stands 85 to 110 cm (nearly 3 to 3 ½ ft) at shoulder.  Weight 35 to 130 kg (77 – 287 lbs).  Females (does) slightly smaller than bucks.

Colour: Red-brown coat with white spots in summer & grey-brown coat in winter, with less distinct spots.  White rumps with black borders; large palmate antlers on males.  Four recognised colour phases: Common (Rust with black dorsal line), Menil (Tan with brown dorsal line), Black (or Melanistic) & White (not Albino).

Distribution: Common throughout UK (naturalised, not native) & much of Central Europe; absent from Iceland & most of Scandinavia.  Introduced to America & New Zealand.   Bulk of British population in England and Wales; patchy distribution in northern England and Scotland.  Population estimated to be growing at ca. 2% per year; current numbers put at 150,000 to 250,000.

Longevity: In wild reach 8 to 10 yrs, exceptional ages of 16yrs known; oldest captive specimen was 20 yrs old.

Sexing: Males have antlers for much of year (shed in spring), laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) & penile sheath.

Activity: Active throughout day & night, with peak at dawn & dusk.  Open spaces used at night by disturbed populations.  Seasonally variable activity patterns; alternate between periods of feeding and ruminating.

Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland & grassy open spaces with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding.  Can be found in open conifer stands.

Territory: Non-territorial - overlapping ranges.  Prepare for rut late August & early September; maintain rutting stands to which does are attracted ('lekking'), or may 'herd' females more akin to Red deer, depending on location/habitat – peak rut in October.   Home range varies with season & habitat: e.g. in New Forest (UK) males = ~50 to 250 ha (123 – 618 ac.), females = ~50 to 90 ha (up to 222 ac.).

Diet: Primarily grasses; bark & shrubs may be taken during the autumn & winter.

Reproduction: Rut during October (peak around 20th) and a single calf is born after 230 day (~33 wk / 8 mo.) gestation (typically during May/June); twins rare (<1% births).  Calf suckled for 6 to 9 months; stays with doe for first year.

Behaviour & Sociality: Generally speaking a gregarious species that live in groups of, at times, a hundred individuals.  Social structure in does, with single dominant female, although social structure highly variable with environment.  Mixed sex groups may form at good feeding sites.

Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK.   Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer - Fallow more frequently hit by cars than other deer species.  Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees (esp. ancient woodland), crops & flowers.

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Sika Deer (Cervus nippon)

Size: Adults 1.14 m to 1.7 m (5.5 ft) long; stag (male) stands 80 to 90 cm (3 ft) at shoulder.  Adult males average 64 kg (140 lbs.), females 41 kg (90 lbs.), and newborn calf weighs ca. 3 kg (7 lbs.).  Females (hinds) slightly smaller than stags.  Size highly variable in accordance with habitat quality.

Colour: Two moults per year leading to red-brown coat with white spots (all ages) in summer & grey-brown or black coat (with less distinct or absent spots) in winter.  White rumps with black stripe down tail and brown border; white metatarsal glands on hock.   Antlers similar to Red deer, although smoother texture and max. 4 tines per antler – single front-pointing tine on each antler.

Distribution: Introduced from Japan some time ca. 1860.  Now scattered populations across UK, including England, Scotland and Ireland – largest populations in Scottish Highlands.   Absent from much of England and Wales.   Population estimated at ca. 35,000; thought to be increasing at ca. 5.3% per year.  Outside of UK, scattered populations in Europe (e.g. German, France and Czech Republic) – native range is Japan and South-east Asia.

Longevity: In wild reach 8 to 10 yrs, exceptional ages of 15 yrs known.

Sexing: Males have antlers for much of year (shed in spring), laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) & penis sheath.

Activity: Active throughout day & night, with peak at dawn & dusk.  Much time spent in woodland and surrounding grassland.

Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland & grassy open spaces with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding.  Can be found in open conifer stands and parks.

Territory: Non-territorial.  Prepare for rut late September; maintain rutting stands between hind resting and feeding sites – rut runs during October and November.   Stags can range over 40 to 60 ha (100 – 150 acres) depending on age (will tolerate subordinates on territory); hinds range less – 18 to 22 ha (45 – 54 acres).

Diet: Primarily grazes grasses, herbs, and sedges, although will browse for leaves, shoots and ivy; bark, shrubs, fruits, berries and fungi taken according to season.

Reproduction: Rut early October to early November (peak around 20th October).  Single (twins very rare) calf born after roughly 8 month gestation (bulk during May & June).  Calf suckled for 6 to 10 months; stays with hind for first year and is sexually mature at about 16 months old.

Behaviour & Sociality: During late spring and summer (i.e. outside of rutting season), hinds may live in small social groups with calves, although in some areas (e.g. New Forest) majority seen either solitarily or with single calf; stags live either solitarily or in small bachelor groups.  Mixed sex groups of adults established during rut and can persist until hinds leave to calve in spring.

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Reeve’s Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)

Size: Smallest deer species found wild in UK.  Adults 90 cm to 1.15 m (3.8 ft) long; weigh 9 to 18 kg (20 – 40 lbs).  Adults stand ca. 40 to 50 cm (1.5 ft) at shoulder.  Males ‘stockier’ than females.

Colour: Uniform chestnut-to-sandy brown above, buff/paler underside and darker markings on face – tail gingery in colour.  Prominent white patch on rump only apparent when tail raised (animal alarmed).

Distribution: Native to south-east China and Taiwan.  Introduced to the UK from China – date of introduction uncertain, although believed to be sometime during the early 20^th Century (1901 release from Woburn Park).   Now common throughout Britain; current population estimated at 150,000+ and numbers thought to be increasing (ca. 8.2% per year).

Longevity: Captive deer have survived for more than 20 years (female).  Accurate records from the wild reach 13 years (female), although some suggestion that some may live longer.

Sexing: Males have simple (single spike), backward-pointing antlers, which grow from prominent pedicles on the skull (striking when looking at animal’s skull) and reach 6 to 8 cm (3 in.) long.  Defined annual antler cycle mediated by testosterone, despite breeding year round – average growth period for antlers 106 days.  Buck has upper canines (~ 2 cm / 1 in. ) that protrude from the upper lip. 

Activity: Active throughout day & night.

Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding.  Increasingly common in urban areas, where they inhabit parks and gardens.

Territory: Maintain territory throughout the year, although ranges may overlap – animals live solitarily or in small family groups (buck, doe and most recent fawn).  Size of range varies according to habitat; may be up to 30 ha (74 acres) in coniferous woodland – bucks typically range further than does.

Diet: Primarily leaves and shrubs such as bramble, ivy and hawthorn – grasses dominate diet during spring and early summer.   May strip bark and fruits taken according to season; will take garden plants.

Reproduction: Breed all year round (although testes less active during summer), with single calf born after 7 month gestation (two litters per year); calf weaned by 12 wks old, although intermittent suckling may continue for sometime afterwards.  Sexually mature at ca. 10 months old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Live solitarily or in small family groups.  Emit loud bark (similar to a large dog) when alarmed and may make a clicking noise by grinding their teeth when alarmed or suspicious.  May fray bark and saplings when marking territory and cleaning velvet off antlers – frays appear similar to those of Roe, but closer to ground.

Learn More About Deer!

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European Mole (Talpa europaea)

Size & Appearance: Range is 5cm to about 20cm (2 - 8 in.) in length, but average closer to 12cm (5 in.).  Weight range 60g to 120g (2 - 4 oz.).  Short tail & large spade-like forelimbs for digging; mole 'swims' through soil.  Tiny eyes (1mm diameter) and ears (small ridges under fur).   Fur isn't 'slanted' and so can be brushed forwards or backwards, allowing the mole to move in either direction in tunnel system.  Head, feet and tail covered with very sensitive hairs that monitor vibrations and wind disturbance in tunnel system; informs mole of food presence or danger.  Internally, mole is well adapted to subterranean lifestyle, including lungs enlarged to fill rib cage and twice erythrocyte (red blood cell) density of other mammals.

Colour: Fur usually velvety dark grey or grey-black, but various colour morphs have been recorded, including white, cream, apricot, tan & piebald animals.  A 16cm (6 in.) albino specimen is preserved in a museum in Gers, Midi-Pyrénées (France).  Moults three times per year, dependent on latitude.

Distribution & Habitat: Widespread throughout much of Britain & Europe in deciduous woodland, grassland & farmland, although rarely seen.  Rare in conifer forests, moorland, flooded fenlands and in agricultural fields that are regularly ploughed (destroys tunnel network, driving moles to field periphery).  MoleWatch (2008) data suggest they're reasonably widespread in England, although there are notable absences around some major conurbations (e.g. London and parts of Thames Valley). Absent from Ireland and, although present in Scotland, there are few data to confirm distribution.  Distribution extends from Britain east into central Russia, north to southern Sweden & Norway, south into northern Spain, northern Italy & much or the Ukraine.  They are apparently absent from most of Spain, Portugal, most of Italy, Greece & the southern Ukraine.

Longevity: Typically less than a year, although up to three years known in wild.  Six years is captive record.

Sexing: Males often larger than females, although not by much (average male is only approx. 5% larger).  Sexual separation often requires dissection owing to both sexes having very similar-looking genitalia (difference in size to the order of a millimetre), although the distance between the openings can be used to separate sexes outside breeding season, with practice.

Activity: Spends most of life underground, where it patrols tunnels roughly every four hours looking for food & intruders.  Spend more time above ground in summer, looking for food, bedding & females.  May move above ground when searching for a territory - surprisingly quick above ground.  Active throughout year; more so during breeding season.  Most active during the night, although diurnal activity common.  Triphasic activity patterns (with three activity periods, each ~ 4 hours, per 24 hrs); two periods during breeding season as males search for mates.  Territory defence & tunnel extension accounts for just over 50% activity.  Females most active when suckling young.   No apparent ability to store fat, so cannot hibernate during winter.

Dens: Lives in a network of tunnels, which it expands throughout its life (at up to 20m / 66ft per day).  Displaced earth is pushed to the surface, creating ‘mole hills’.  Mole hills serve to direct airflow into the tunnel system, ensuring there is a steady breeze throughout the network even on calm days above ground (helps transfer smell of food in tunnels to mole).  Large chambers off the main tunnels are lined with vegetation & used as resting sites.  Estimated that mole may move 6kg (13 lbs.) of earth per 20 minutes while excavating tunnels.  Fortresses (network of tunnels) may be built over nests, esp. in winter, & may act to conserve heat.  Tunnel systems may extend beyond 1m (3.5ft) down.

Territory: Highly territorial & tolerate others only during the breeding season.  Males holder larger (often twice size) territories than females.  Core areas defended vigorously, but some overlap in peripheral tunnels; aggression reduced by different time use of tunnels.  Size & shape of territory highly variable & dependent upon prey availability; average male territory in summer is 3,000 m² (0.75 acre) cf. nearly 8,000 m² (2 acres) in winter – females stable throughout year, ranging from 1,300 to 2,100 m² (0.5 acre).

Diet: Predominantly earthworms (90% in winter, 50% in summer), will opportunistically take insects (e.g. centipedes, millipedes & larvae) & molluscs.  There are records of them preying on small rodents -- mice & shrews -- as well as snakes & lizards, small birds, frogs & other moles – probably feeding on carrion.  Some suggestion that their saliva is toxic & used to paralyze worms that are later cached (common in spring & autumn); one cache contained >1,500 worms.  Excess earth removed from prey by pulling it through claws.  Very fast metabolism requires it to eat at least every 6 hours; eats 40-50g (~ 1.5 oz.), or ~25 worms, per day .  Hunt in tunnels, which act as food trap (invertebrates fall in).  Apparently rarely eat vegetables, although study from Berlin found Ascomycota truffles in stomachs of 30% of moles caught in pine forest.   Hunts using touch from vibrissae on nose, tail and feet.  Snout covered in thousands of tiny touch-receptors called Eimer's organs (named after German zoologist Thomas Eimer who described them in 1871) that are very heavily innervated (~5,000 organs on nose associated with ~105,000 nerve fibres).  Can apparently smell earthworms through ~8cm (3 in.) of clay.

Reproduction: Promiscuous with a brief breeding season (March to May) & oestrous (est. less than 24 hours).  Male enters female’s tunnels & mates with her.  Young born from April to June, after a 30 day gestation.  Female digs & lines nest chamber; typically use one, but may have three-or-more & move young if disturbed.  The average litter size is four young, but the range is two to seven.  Fur growth is complete by 14 days old & start to leave the nest at about one month old; weaned at 4-5 weeks, independent by 6 weeks & sexually mature at about 10 months.  Female-only parental care.

Behaviour & Sociality: Solitary outside of breeding season.  Make various noises, including squeaks, purrs & shrill twittering, which are presumably used for communication.  Wide range of scent glands that transmit information about individuals; secretions crucial for territorial defence.  Vacant territories often filled within 24 hours.

Threats: Often killed by predators, but apparently distasteful & so frequently left uneaten.  Predators include birds of prey (Tawny owls & buzzards), herons, stoats, weasels & foxes; some taken by domestic cats & dogs.  Tooth wear, & subsequent starvation, one of major causes of death.  No longer widely hunted for pelts, although commonly killed as garden/agricultural pests.  Not considered endangered, although uncertain of numbers – old estimates put UK population at around 31 million, but this is likely to be inaccurate.

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Brown Hare (Lepus europaeus)
Sits within the Lagomorpha order of mammals, in the family Leporidae (rabbits & hares).   One of 32 species within the Lepus genus; appears more closely related to African than other European hares.  In Britain, sometimes considered subspecies Lepus europaeus occidentalis, but seems little justification for separation from European populations.  Appears to have been introduced to Britain either during the late Iron Age or early in Roman occupation.

Size: Globally head & body length ranges 40cm to 70cm (16-26 in.), with a short (7-13cm / 3-5 in.) white tail.  Large (8-10cm / 3-4 in.) ears.  Adults weigh 2.5kg to 7kg (5.5-15.5 lbs.) according to season & habitat.

Colour/Appearance: Larger size, long black-tipped ears, loping gait, longer hind legs, & larger (furred) paws distinguish it from rabbits.  Thick black tip to ears; tail black above & white below.  Fur on back is dense (red-brown, grizzled with black) & composed of three types (underfur, pile hair & guard hair) each of different length & thickness.  Yellower colouration to flanks & red chest with white belly.  Moults twice per year (spring & autumn).  Coat light brown, with reddish tinge in winter; white, albino, black (melanistic) & sandy morphs are known.

Distribution: Native to northern, central, & western Europe & western Asia.  Introduced to United Kingdom, eastern North America, southern South America (Brazil, Argentina, Chile), western Australia & New Zealand.  Also introduced to several islands, including Orkney, Inner Hebrides, Isle of Man, Tasmania, the Falklands, Barbados & Reunion.   Absent from most of Ireland (naturalised in northwest), most of central and western Scotland, Sardinia, Balearic Islands & much of Iberia.  In Britain, replaced by Mountain hare (Lepus timidus) above ~300m (1,000ft).

Longevity: Maximum of 13 yrs in captivity.  Most wild animals do not exceed 6yrs (some populations average <2yrs), although one 12yr old wild animal was recorded from Poland.

Sexing: Males called bucks; females called does.   Little sexual dimorphism, although males ~5% heavier than females.

Activity: Largely nocturnal, although occasional bouts of daytime activity (esp. during breeding season).   Much of day spent resting in form or grazing.   Swims well, although usually only when pursued.

Territory/Habitat: Generally an animal of farmland, preferring open habitat.  Seem to need mix of crops, grass, fallow, hedges and wild flower strips to provide food year-round.  May be found in city parks & cemeteries, in deciduous woodland, on moors & dunes; rare in conifer forests.  Does not build warrens as rabbits do; instead dig out shallow depression (‘form’) in which to crouch; deepest at rear where animal’s back end sits.   Faithful to form, which becomes long & deep with prolonged use.  Rely on camouflage & form for concealment from predators; very difficult to spot when crouched in form.  Average adult range ~300ha, although this may be shared by several animals (UK densities 1-4 per ha), each concentrating on a different patch.  No apparent territoriality.  May move 1,700m from feeding to shelter each day, depending on habitat – day range usually smaller than night range.

Diet: Herbivorous; more selective than rabbits.  Predominantly flowering plants in form of grasses & herbs (often cultivated); grasses dominate in summer, herbs in winter.  Occasionally take cereals, strip bark (esp. during harsh weather), graze saplings, leaves, flower heads, vegetables and windfall fruit.  Some suggestion that they’ll eat carrion during harsh weather.  Engage in ‘refection’, whereby the first soft, round pellets (caecotroph) are eaten in order to pass the material through the digestive tract again (gain protein & vitamins) – equivalent to rumination of ungulates.  Secondary, hard oval faeces generally passed at night & aren’t eaten.   Gut microbes become established in the leveret from mother’s milk & consumption of caecotrophs.

Reproduction: Induced ovulators; act of mating stimulates doe to ovulate (increasing chance of conception).   Breed throughout most of year.  Sperm present in buck’s testicles all year (winter pregnancies known), but largely inactive Oct-Nov, after which reactivation starts; complete by February & testes maintain peak weight until August.  Bulk of breeding activity Feb-Oct; female averages 3 litters per year (long breeding season usually sees young born January-September).  Litters average 3 young (leverets), with smaller litters early & late in season (common range 1-4); large litters (up to 10) are rare.   Gestation is ~42 days & leverets born above ground in form, fully furred with eyes open & weighing ~110g (tripled weight by 1 month).  Females leave young immediately after birth (which hide in vegetation) & move away to feed, returning briefly (once or twice per day for 1-5 mins) to suckle them; young gather in birth form ~1hr before sunset & follow female when she arrives.  Start eating solid food after ~1wk & weaned at ~1 month (although late litters may suckle for 3 months); fully grown by ~5 months & sexually mature at 6 months (males) or 8 months (females).   Leverets (Lagomorphs in general), unlike most mammals, don’t have many micro-organisms in their digestive tract while suckling.  Instead of protection being transferred in doe’s milk, an antimicrobial fatty acid (called ‘milk oil’) is produced in the leveret's stomach (a result of enzymatic reaction to the mother's milk) & provides some protection against enteritis.

Behaviour/Sociality: Largely solitary, although several may live in close proximity & form loose aggregations when foraging, especially during the evening.  Aggregations may also form during breeding, where males establish dominance & drive off subordinate males from females.   Boxing (‘Mad March’) behaviour often seen during March/April & is practiced by both sexes, although usually females fending off overzealous males.  Several scent (anal, groin, & mouth) glands presumably have communicative role.  Typically silent, although screams when distressed (sounding like ‘wailing child’) & makes occasional whistling & grunting noises.

Threats: Hunting (Game Bag) records suggest a significant decline in hare numbers in Britain post 1960s & this has largely been attributed to changes in farming practices.  Hunting may also have been a factor.   Dead hares rarely found (other than road casualties); coccidiosis (caused by protozoan Eimeria) is often fatal to leverets in humid conditions.  Apparently not susceptible to myxomatosis (occasional records, but very rare).  Can be vulnerable to fox predation & some studies suggest that fox control boosts hare numbers.   Other predators include bears, lynx, stoats, weasels, badgers & polecats.  Some birds of prey (esp. buzzards and Tawny owls) are known to take leverets, while others -- goshawks, eagle owls and golden eagles -- can take adults.

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Tawny Owl (Strix aluco)          
Eleven subspecies described, probably only eight valid; British subspecies Strix aluco sylvatica lighter in colour and heavier than the type (S. a. aluco) race.

Size: Reasonably small owl, with adults standing 30-46cm (12-18 in.) tall and weighing between 380-660g (13-23 oz.).   It has a wingspan of 81–96 cm (32–38 in.).

Colour/Appearance: Reddish-brown above, paler underside.  Dark feathers around face; dark eyes.   Two or three colour morphs found in Britain -- brown, grey and rufous (red) -- with some intermediates described.   Some authorities do not separate rufous and brown morphs.  Some indication that different colour morphs may have differing survival probabilities associated with risk of predation, metabolism and immune system strength.

Distribution: Most common owl of central Europe.  Found throughout UK year-round, but apparently absent from Ireland; rare visitors to islands (e.g. Isle of Wight).  RSPB estimated breeding population of 19,400 birds.

Longevity: Wild birds generally don’t exceed 5 yrs old, although an 18 yr old wild individual has been documented.   In captivity, 27 yrs has been recorded.

Sexing: Sexually dimorphic in size, with females larger than males.  Females are 20-40% heavier, and have a wingspan 5-10% larger, than males.   Likely that males and females can be distinguished based on call types, but some authorities dispute this (see Behaviour & Sociality).

Activity: Hunt nocturnally, but may be active during the daytime.   Can be found sitting in trees or at roost sites during the day.   Despite being common, they are rarely seen, although daytime calling is relatively common in some areas.

Territory/Habitat: Established pairs defend territory from other owls.  Predominantly a bird of mixed and deciduous woodland, although is highly adaptable and can be found in parks and larger gardens, even in the middle of large cities.   Radio-tracked birds show preference for deciduous and mature conifer forest.  Often roosts in holes in trees or among ivy; may be found sitting against the trunk of large trees or on main branches.  Can survive in small (eight hectares) areas rich in food, although this is generally considered too small to permit breeding.   Breeding territories vary according to resources, from an average of 12 ha (one-tenth sq-kilometre or one-twentieth sq-mile) in deciduous woodland, to 37 ha in mixed farmland and 46 ha (half sq-kilometre or one-fifth sq-mile) in mature conifer forests.   In areas of very low food supply, such as in marshy areas, territories may cover more than 100 ha (one sq-km or almost half sq-mile).

Diet: Small mammals (especially rodents in rural areas), small birds (esp. in urban areas) and even other raptors, amphibians, reptiles (e.g. slowworms and grass snakes), fish (e.g. goldfish from garden ponds) and invertebrates (e.g. insects and worms).   Known to catch birds, bats and insects in flight.  They will also take carrion if available.  Surplus food may be cached in trees.  Food swallowed whole and indigestible parts regurgitated as pellet.

Reproduction: Generally monogamous (polyandry is known), with a life-long pair-bond that is maintained throughout the year.   Pair-bond strengthened during the autumn and winter with prolific calling and courtship feeding (male presents food to female).   Have first clutch at around two years old.   Average clutch is two-or-three eggs (up to nine have been recorded in Britain), laid at roughly two-day intervals from late March onwards (January clutches are known).    Eggs take about four weeks to hatch and owlets are brooded for around 20 days.   Leave the nest at around 25 days old, but hang around and aren’t fully fledged until they’re five or six weeks old.   Young disperse in autumn.

Behaviour & Sociality: Form pairs, but otherwise antisocial.   If mobbed, these birds make no attempt to fight, instead remaining still until their antagonists get bored and move on.   Territory crucial for survival and those failing to secure territory often starve.  Immature owls may wander long (up to 745km / 503 mi.) distances.  Calls with classic ‘ke-wick-hoo-hoo’; calls probably sexually specific as only males seem to make deep, powerful ‘hoo-hoooo’ calls, while females make strong ‘ke-wick’ and more plaintive ‘hoo-hooo’.

Threats: No major threats and not classified as a threatened species by the ICUN.   Vulnerable to predation from Eagle owls (Bubo bubo), Northern Goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) and Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).   Other owls (e.g. Barn owls) known susceptible to rodent poisons (rodenticides) used to kill agricultural pests; Tawny probably also vulnerable.  Recent data from Scandinavia suggest that brown morphs suffer higher mortality than grey morphs during harsh winters, possibly because they're more obvious to predators against snow.  Some biochemical data to indicate that brown morphs have higher metabolisms and weaker immune systems than grey morphs and may thus be less adaptable.

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Barn Owl (Tyto alba) 
At least 31 subspecies proposed, based largely on colouration, but DNA data imply only 10 valid; type subspecies, Tyto alba alba, found in UK.

Size: Smaller than many people imagine, standing 34cm (1 ft) tall and weighing 250-480g (0.5-1 lb.).  No apparent sexual difference in size, although females generally heavier than males.  Wingspan of 90-98cm (3 ft).

Colour/Appearance: Unmistakable white, heart-shaped face with tan/buff back and wing tops; pure white or speckled underneath.

Distribution: Fairly wide distribution in UK, although has suffered significant declines during the past 50 years.  Absent from much of central and southern Scotland as well as northern-most Scotland and Scottish Islands.   Absent from north-west Ireland.  RSPB estimate UK wintering population to be 12,500 to 25,000 birds, with 3,000 to 5,000 breeding pairs.

Longevity: Typically 1 to 3 yrs, although 21 yrs recorded from captivity.

Sexing: No significant difference in size, but the vast majority (~98%) of males have pure white breast, while females chest is flecked with black dots; juvenile females heavily flecked, fading with age.

Activity: Hunt nocturnally (best time to see them is dawn/dusk), but may be active during the daytime especially when feeding young.  Often found sitting in trees during the day.  Predominantly sedentary bird in Britain but may migrate considerable distances according to prey distributions.

Territory/Habitat: Most often bird of open country, hunting along field edges and ‘quartering’ larger fields (flying low and covering area in sections).  Preference for grassy headlands and fields with un-tended edges and hedges (with fence posts for perching).  Also found along riverbanks and may hunt along roadside verges, where they’re susceptible to traffic.  Not uncommon near urban areas.  Generally resident, but will migrate substantial distances (500km / 340 mi.) if food becomes scarce.  Generally chooses secluded areas (e.g. barns, abandoned buildings, ruins etc.), especially for nest sites.  May be found in cliff holes, mines and holes in trees.  Take readily to nest boxes.  Arguably impossible to estimate territory accurately, but some suggest 4-5 sq-km (2 sq-mi.) required to support a pair.

Diet: Short-tailed voles significant prey, along with wood mice and brown rats (overall 90% diet is rodents).   May take shrews.  Report from Sussex during 1985 of owl killed by dog as it tried to attack one of its puppies (presumably aberrant behaviour).  Food swallowed whole and indigestible parts regurgitated as pellet.

Reproduction: Typically monogamous (life-pair), although not always.  Productivity linked to small mammal (prey) populations.  Four to seven white eggs (up to 15 in good vole years) laid over several days (about two days between laying).  Female incubates alone, fed by male who brings in an average of 9 items per day during incubation, increasing once young have hatched.  Eggs incubated for around 30 days and hatch at two-day intervals (different aged birds in nest at same time).  Eyes open at 8-11 days and skeletal growth complete (can walk) by 5 or 6 weeks old.  Wing growth complete and birds fledged at 8-10 weeks old.  High mortality (up to 75%) during first year.

Behaviour & Sociality: Lives singly or in pairs.  Various different call types; long, harsh ‘chrrrrreeh’ call made while perched and long-drawn ‘rushing’ sounds during aggressive encounters. 

Threats: Significant population declines across much of Europe and North America associated with numerous factors, including changes to farming practices.  Susceptible to traffic while hunting road verges and agricultural rodenticides.  Hit hard by prolonged bad weather (esp. heavy rain and snow) and may fall prey to peregrines and goshawks. 

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Short-eared Owl (Asio flammeus)    
Seven recognised subspecies; type species Asio flammeus flammeus found in UK.

Size: Medium-sized owl, standing 34-42cm (13-16in) tall; weighs 200-500g (7-18 oz.) with males lighter than females.  Wingspan 21-34cm (8-13in) and tail 13-16cm (5in).  Males weigh up to 400g (14 oz.), with females up to 500g (1 lb).

Colour/Appearance: Mottled black/brown/buff bodies, with paler underside and under-wing.  Striking yellow eyes.

Distribution: Resident in eastern Scotland, most of northern, northern-central England and parts of eastern England and northern and western Wales.  Winter visitor to southern and western Wales, most of central England, southern and eastern Ireland.  Summer visitor to much of Scotland.  RSPB estimate 1,000 to 3,500 UK breeding pairs and 5,000 to 50,000 individuals wintering in the UK, largely continental immigrants.

Longevity: Reasonably long-lived bird, attaining up to 13 years in the wild.

Sexing: Females larger than males and calls sexually distinctive.

Activity: Mostly diurnal (often seen hunting during the daytime), with activity peaks at dawn and dusk.  Often perches on exposed sites (fence posts, bushes etc.).  Highly migratory species, sedentary only in tropics.

Territory/Habitat:   A bird of farmland and, especially in winter, coastal marshes and wetlands.  Prefers open areas, with sparsely distributed trees and bushes; can do well in heavily cultivated areas.  Establishes territory during breeding season and may construct nest; display in flight with wing-clapping and diving.   Territory varies greatly with food availability between 18-137ha (up to 13. sq-km or half a sq-mile).

Diet: Small mammals, predominantly voles, although will take rabbits and rats as well as some predatory mammals (e.g. weasels).  Also takes frogs, lizards and medium-sized birds (up to size of pigeon); may cache surplus food in vicinity of nest.

Reproduction: Breeds in late-winter/early-spring; lay 7-10 eggs between late-March and June.  Female incubates while male hunts, incubation lasts 26-29 days and chicks leave nest to hide in vegetation at around 16 days old (flightless).  Parents continue to feed chicks, which sexually mature in their first year. 

Behaviour & Sociality: May gather in groups during autumn; roost and hunt together.  During breeding season will fiercely evict intruders from territory.  Male emits rapid series of deep ‘boo-boo-boo’ hoots (rising and falling in pitch and volume and likened to puffing of a steam train); both sexes give ‘kweeau’ calls when disturbed.  Aggressively defends nests.

Threats: Amber conservation list species.  Crows known to raid nests for chicks and eggs, which can impact breeding success locally, and adult birds occasionally fall prey to peregrines.  Often ground-nesting, which leaves nest vulnerable to accidental damage (e.g. crushing by farm machinery).

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Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)  
Four subspecies recognised, with Asio otus otus the one found in UK.

Size: Medium-sized owl standing 35-40cm (14in) tall and with a tail 12-16cm (5.5in).  Wing span up to around 80cm (2.5ft).  Weigh up to 430g (15 oz.).

Colour/Appearance: Light/buff brown with dark brown/black streaks and spots, pale ochre face disc rimmed with black.  Head feathers primarily dark brown, with paler fringes.   Dark brown feathers give the appearance of ears.

Distribution: Reasonably widespread in Britain and Ireland, although absent from most of south-west England and southern Wales.  Most Scottish birds are summer visitors and species is resident in much of Ireland, excluding and area in the central-west of the country.  RSPB estimate between 1,500 and 4,780 breeding pairs in the UK.

Longevity: Captive birds may live for 28 yrs, although 15 yrs is probably upper limit in wild.

Sexing: Calls sexually distinctive.  Male song is deep ‘whooh’, while female call is weaker and more nasal in character.

Activity: Nocturnal with activity beginning at dusk; spends day roosting against tree trunks.  Generally sedentary species.

Territory/Habitat: Open countryside with tree stands, hedges, pasture etc.  May roost in deciduous or coniferous forests, orchards, parks, cemeteries and even larger gardens.  Territories vary with food supply (typically 50-100ha / one-fifth to one-third of sq-mile), although neighbouring pairs may be as close as 50-150m (160-320ft).

Diet: Predominantly small mammals, with short-tailed voles of particular importance.  Will take other vertebrates, including birds up to about pigeon-size, and insects.  Birds appear particularly important during the summer.

Reproduction: Often uses abandoned nests of other birds (esp. other raptors) into which 4-5 eggs are laid during March/April.  Incubation lasts around 4 weeks and chicks leave the nest flightless at about 25 days old.  Chicks can fly by around 35 days old and follow their parents who continue to feed them for another couple of months.  Usually one clutch per year; two in good vole years.

Behaviour & Sociality: Monogamous during breeding season and, despite being territorial, several pairs may live close-by – how close determined by food supply.  Male and female make tinny ‘watt-watt-watt’ sound when disturbed. 

Threats: Locally persecuted (shot) and vulnerable to pesticides and road traffic – in Germany ~25% study population died on roads each year.

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Little Owl (Athene noctua)     
Many subspecies described, but probably only eight have any validity.  Athene noctua noctua found in Britain.

Size: Small owl standing only 23cm (9in) tall and with a tail up to 10cm (4in) long.   Wings measure up to 20cm each.  Weigh up to 260g (9 oz.).

Colour/Appearance: Flat pale grey-brown facial disc with prominent whitish eyebrows.  Dark brown body heavily speckled with white, white streaks and spots on head and crown. 

Distribution: Introduced to Britain in 19^th Century and now resident throughout most of England, barring the most northern parts; widespread throughout Wales but absent from Scotland and Ireland.  RSPB estimate UK breeding population at 5,800 to 11,600 pairs.

Longevity: May reach 16 years old, although up to 70% may die in first year.

Sexing: Female calls higher-pitched and more nasal than that of males.

Activity: Active during the day and night (especially during the breeding season), although generally hunt at dawn and dusk.  Nocturnal activity correlated to prey distribution.  Usually spends daytime perching close to nest hole, on branches, fence posts, telegraph poles, barn roofs and rocks.

Territory/Habitat: Does well in most habitats.   Preference for lowland mixed farmland with hedges and copses livestock (dung provides insect source).   Also found in large gardens, parks, cemeteries and orchards.  Often roosts/nests in barns and out-buildings.  Territorial all year around; defend about 50ha (0.5 sq-km/one-fifth sq-mile) but range, which may overlap with neighbours, can be much larger and variable 2-127ha (up to 1.3 sq-km / half a sq-mile), average range is around 15ha (one-tenth sq-km / one-sixteenth sq-mile).

Diet: Varied diet including insects (especially beetles and grasshoppers), worms, small reptiles and amphibians, small birds (up to about blackbird-size) and small mammals; game and poultry chicks sometimes taken.   Despite small size, may ‘have a go’ at prey larger than itself.  Hedgehog, rabbit and bat remains found in pellets.

Reproduction: Nest usually hollow tree or in wall.  Egg laying begins around April and 3-6 eggs laid at two-day intervals.  Female incubates eggs for around 30 days, fed by male.  Female broods chicks for couple of weeks and they leave nest at about 4 weeks old; can make limited flights by about 6 weeks old and independent by 3 months old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Monogamous with long-term (4yr + ) pair bond; Defends territory through aggressive behaviour and singing with nasal ‘piping’.

Threats: Introduced to Britain by Victorians and now abundant although it’s considered to have ‘declining’ status across much of its range.  Threats include habitat loss (land-use changes), pesticides (food reduction) and road traffic.

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European Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)    
Multiple subspecies proposed, some have been regarded as distinct species; 13 subspecies recognised, with Bubo bubo bubo from the UK.

Size: Large owl standing 58-71cm (23-28in) tall, with a tail 23-30cm (12in) and wing length of 41-52cm (16-20in).  Weigh 1.5-2.8kg (3.3-6 lbs) and 2.3-4.2kg (up to 9 lbs) for males and females, respectively.

Colour/Appearance: Large heavy owl with prominent ear tufts (feathers), bright orange eyes set in grey facial disk.  Primarily a ‘rusty’ brown colour with black markings, including irregular spotting and black streaks on breast.  Darker back, paler underside.

Distribution: Widespread throughout northern, southern and western Europe but has limited and patchy distribution in Britain; populations here may be immigrants or escapees from captivity.  Many single or unconfirmed reports of owls from England, including on the Peak District moors in Derbyshire.  Reports of birds living wild in Scotland (Galloway, Invernesshire, and Sutherland) and parts of England (e.g. Bolton in Greater Manchester, North Yorkshire moors, Bowland in Lancashire, and Northumberland).

Longevity: Can exceed 60 yrs old in captivity, but oldest wild (ringed) bird died at 19 yrs old.

Sexing: Females heavier than males and calls sexually indicative.

Activity: Occasionally hunt during the daytime when feeding chicks but otherwise active primarily between dawn and dusk. 

Territory/Habitat: Territorial by nature, but not strictly (territories may overlap).  Roost by day in trees or rock crevices.  Range size linked to prey availability and averages around 14,000 ha (140 sq-km / half a sq-mile) in moorland habitat.

Diet: Small and medium-sized mammals such as rabbits, hares and hedgehogs; reputedly attack foxes and small deer.  May take gamebirds including pheasants and, during 2010, Bowland Fells bird filmed raiding Hen harrier nest and attacking the female.  Known to feed on buzzards, barn owls and herons in Europe.  Fears raised that owls could take dogs and cat in Britain, but no evidence for this and it seems that rabbits account for 90%+ of prey where supply is good. 

Reproduction: Nest in sheltered areas along rock faces/walls; in Europe successfully nest in quarries (apparently undisturbed by blasting) and known to excavate disused ant-hills.  Female lays up to 4 eggs at 3 day intervals during late-winter.  Female incubates eggs for about 34 days (fed by male) and hatching remarkably synchronised given period between eggs being laid; chicks brooded for about 2 weeks and chicks start feeding themselves at about 3 weeks old.  Chicks can make short flights at around 7 weeks old and are cared for by parents until about 6 months old.

Behaviour & Sociality: Often pair for life and male and female may roost together during the day.  Deep resonating ‘buoh’ call of male and higher-pitched ‘huhooh’ song of female often heard as duet. 

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