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SPEED READ Last Updated: 23rd April 2010 |
Welcome to SpeedRead! Following on from reader feedback -- incidentally, I'd love to hear yours -- and consultation with friends and colleagues, one point has come to light: although most were impressed by the depth of information on the site, they were sometimes overwhelmed by the sheer length of some of the pages. It seems that, although my original attempts to break up the information has helped, several people have expressed an interest in a summary of the information; a "quick fix" if you like. Well, here is my on-going attempt to provide just that. Below are brief (no longer than one A4 page of text) summaries of the biology, ecology and behaviour of the main species covered on the site. Please excuse the clastic sentence fragments and lack of clause analysis, but this is meant to provide a quick and simple overview of the facts. At the bottom of each section is a link that will take you to the relevant full article, should you wish to indulge your curiosity further. I am interested to hear feedback on this little project; these and any queries or questions can be directed to the usual address.
Select A Species:
Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)
European Badger (Meles meles)
Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)
Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)
Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)
Fallow Deer (Dama dama)
Sika Deer (Cervus nippon)
Reeve's Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
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Size: 60 – 90cm (2ft – 3ft) head & body length; can reach 1.5m (5ft) including tail. In Britain, average weight of adult male is around 6.5kg (14lbs), while adult females are approx. 5.5kg (12lbs). The range globally is 4 – 10kg (9 – 22lbs).
Colour: Highly variable; can range from yellow-red to black (‘silver’). Most common characteristic is white chin & underside with white tip to the tail & amber eyes. Four main colour phases (Red, White, Silver & Cross), which are genetically inherited.
Distribution: UK & most of Europe, North Africa, North America, Canada as far north as some arctic islands, & parts of Asia. Also found throughout China, northern India & Australia (introduced for hunting).
Longevity: Oldest (captive) animal 15 years. Typically, foxes live for only 2 years (esp. in urban environment), although more generally a range of 2 to 8 years can be expected. Upper limit in wild is 6 or 8 years.
Sexing: Very little sexual dimorphism (i.e. sexes look very similar). Males (dogs), on average larger than females (vixens), with broader heads & longer, narrower snouts than females.
Activity: Predominantly crepuscular & nocturnal (active at dusk, night & dawn); can be seen diurnally (daytime) lying in thick vegetation or patrolling territories – diurnal activity may be more common in urban environments during cub-rearing months.
Dens: Use dens (referred to as “earths”) predominantly during cub-rearing months, although may be used outside this period. May lie up in vegetation or in sunny spots (such as on shed roofs or in trees). Natal den sought during February. Several dens may exist per territory.
Territory: Substantial variation by habitat (resource-based). Rural foxes commonly have territories between 200 & 600 ha. (500 – 1,500 acres), extending to 4,000 ha (10,000 ac.) in poor Scottish Highlands. Urban foxes tend to forage over smaller areas; less than 60 ha (150 ac. or 1/4 sq-mi.). Territories often composed of two areas; larger (home range) area containing a smaller (core area) territory. Home ranges may overlap with neighbours; core areas don’t –violently defended against interlopers.
Diet: Varied – highly opportunitistic. Mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, fish, amphibians, fruit, vegetables, grass & human rubbish.
Reproduction: Breeding season late December to February. Cubs (ave. 4 to 6) born March to late April (peak mid-March). Cubs presented with solid food from 3 wks old & emerge from den in early May (~ 6 wks old). Cubs weaned by about 8 wks old. Independent by 3 to 5 months; family unit breaks down from September onwards.
Behaviour & Sociality: Normally solitary (or in pairs); can occur in family groups where resources allow (e.g. urban areas). Have been associated with attacks on pets/livestock & damage to gardens. Calling rare outside of mating season.
Threats: Hunted for sport throughout much of range. Many killed by cars in towns & cities. Mange has decreased numbers recently. Predators of adults in UK non-existent; elsewhere predators include wolves & lynx.
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Size: Adults usually 70 to 100 cm (2 – 31/2 ft) long. Weight varies seasonally; adults usually 6 to 7 kg (13 – 15 lbs) in summer & 12 to 14 kg (26 – 31 lbs) in winter. Average adult weight in autumn is about 12kg; that for spring is circa 9kg (20 lbs).
Colour: Silvery-grey to black body & tail with paler stomach (thin white abdominal fur) & dark paws. Easily identified by characteristic black-and-white striped face (mask) & white margins to their ears. White (inc. albino), dark & red colour phases known.
Distribution: Most of Europe (excl. north Scandinavia, Iceland, Corsica, Sardinia & Sicily) & parts of Asia as far east as China.
Longevity: Average lifespan 2 years, may be 7 or 8 in wild; can live for almost 20 years in captivity.
Sexing: Sexual differentiation arguable; no accurate way of sexing without direct physical contact. Males = Boars; Females = Sows.
Activity: Primarily nocturnal (with some crepuscular tendencies); time of emergence may relate to level of persecution. Often torporic for parts of winter, but do not truly hibernate.
Dens: Referred to as “setts”. Can be extensive, with primary sett (several entrances) & subsidiary setts throughout territory. Regularly change bedding (dried leaves & grass).
Territory: Territories of 20 to 50 ha (50 – 124 ac.) common in rich habitats; 150 ha (370 ac.) or more in poorer regions. Group (clan) may average 10-or-more in parts of Britain (solitary or pairs throughout most of range), which defend territory aggressively. Territory marked with scent (latrines).
Diet: Broad, opportunistic diet – includes: earthworms (predominantly in UK), cereals, small mammals (esp. hedgehogs), amphibians, insects, fruit & plant bulbs/roots. Have been implicated in bird nest predation.
Reproduction: Mating can occur during any month (bulk February to May). Embryonic diapause yields mid-January to mid-March (peak early Feb.) born young. Litter size average 2; up to 6 cubs. Cubs appear above ground late-April/early-May (~ 8wks old) & can take solid food at 5 or 6 months old. Mature at 12 to 15 months old.
Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary or in pairs; exist in large clans where resources allow (no sign of cooperation within clan). No obvious pecking order observed (although considered probable). Scent highly important to sociality; clan members mark each other with secretions from subcaudal glands. WildCRU documented 16 acoustically-distinct calls from badgers at Wytham Woods (Oxford). Peak period for dispersal is late June through to August/September.
Threats: Widely culled in response to bovine tuberculosis control. No natural predators. High numbers killed on the roads – especially cubs during the summer. Protected by law in the UK.
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Red
Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)
Size: Max. length about 45cm (18 in.), of which up to 20cm (8 in.) may be tail. Commonly, ~ 21cm (8in.) inc. tail.
Colour: Highly variable; range from black to dull yellowy-brown (“buff”), covering most shades of red & brown. Albinos rare; melanistic (black) common in some regions (e.g. continental Europe), rare in UK.
Distribution: Throughout Europe & Asia, from ~70oN to 30oN; Britain & China represent limits of range. Within UK, still reasonably widespread through S. & E. Scotland, & much (excl. far west) of Ireland. Also found in isolated pockets of England (e.g. Brownsea Island & Isle of Wight) & three distinct populations in Wales.
Longevity: Max. (captivity) is 10 years. In wild, average is 3 yrs; max. in wild probably 7 yrs.
Sexing: Impossible at distance; during breeding season close inspection reveals swollen, darkly stained testes. Distance between genital openings can be used to sex squirrels during handling.
Activity: Diurnal (daytime) species, emerging ~30 min. after sunrise. Bimodal activity periods during the summer (morning & evening) & unimodal in winter (morning).
Dens: Referred to as “dreys”; usually in trees (occasionally on ground). Composed of leaves & twigs; lined with moss. Roughly spherical & typically 30cm (1ft.) diameter. Nursing females may have several dreys in area to facilitate moving young when threatened.
Territory: Range over ave. 70 ha (range 20-100; up to 247 ac); have “core areas” of intense use & these areas will be defended against intruders. Territory establishment essential for successful reproduction. Territory quality directly impacts fecundity.
Diet: Primarily seeds & plant matter, incl. berries & fruit. Opportunists; diet includes fungi, nuts, seeds, bark, sap, soil (minerals?), roots, cereals, insects (incidental?), bird chicks & eggs.
Reproduction: Females polyoestrus with bimodal peaks: winter (Dec.-Mar.) mating produces young in spring (Mar.-May); spring mating yields young during summer (July-Sept.). Gestation 36 to 42 days (depending on weather & food). Ave. litter is 3 young (kittens). Young outside at 7 wks; fully weaned by 10 wks & independent at 12 to 16 wks. Sexually mature at 6 months old. Breeding heavily influenced by mast crop.
Behaviour & Sociality: Primarily solitary; drey sharing known, individuals seem familiar with each other. Hierarchy system known between & within sexes; males not necessarily dominant to females. Peak dispersal in autumn (some in summer & spring). Spend less time on ground than Greys. Emit various acoustically distinct calls; foot stomping, tail flicking & chasing my accompany agonistic calls. During breeding season, single female may be pursued by several males. Chasing, chattering & tail-flicking often witnessed during mating chases.
Threats: Large numbers killed on roads & by viruses (such as squirrelpox). Habitat loss, encroachment by Greys & changes to habitat management also implicated in species decline. Historically persecuted as pest to forestry. Globally, predators include foxes, wildcats, martens, goshawks, raptors, stoats, coyotes, snakes & bobcats.
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Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis)
Size: Max. 55cm (~2ft), of which 25cm (10 in.) may be tail; average about 26cm (~1ft) including tail. Weigh from 400 to 700 grams (14–25 oz.), with most specimens across Europe between 450 & 650g (16 – 23 oz.); average about 550g (19 ½ oz. – seasonally variable) in UK.
Colour: Typically grey-backed, grey tails & white (or significantly lighter) underside; flanks vary from grey to dusky red. Melanistic & albino Greys rare; white individuals may be locally common.
Distribution: Native to NE America; introduced to Britain. In UK, Greys found throughout England, although they’re absent from Isle of Wight & apparently scarce from north Pennines to Southern Uplands (ca. 56o to 54o N). Fragmented populations exist in Scotland, Wales & Ireland.
Longevity: Oldest captive specimen was 20 yrs; Wild ave. 4-5 yrs for females & 2-3 yrs for males.
Sexing: Impossible at distance; during breeding season close inspection reveals swollen testes. Distance between genital openings can be used to sex squirrels during handling.
Activity: Diurnal; seasonally sporadic activity patterns. Active throughout day during autumn; activity diminishes to about 4 hours or less (mornings) in winter, before increasing again to between 3 & 8 hours -- frequently bimodal -- in spring & summer
Dens: Referred to as “dreys”, usually in trees (occasionally on ground). Composed of leaves & twigs; lined with moss. Roughly spherical & typically 30cm (1ft.) diameter. Nursing females may have several dreys in area to facilitate moving young when threatened.
Territory: Range over between 2 & 10 hectares (5 to 25 ac.) for most of year, but males may cover more than 100 ha (247 ac.) during mating season. Defend core area from intruders; parts of range may overlap.
Diet: Primarily seeds & plant matter, incl. berries & fruit. Opportunists; diet includes fungi, nuts, seeds, bark, sap, soil (minerals?), roots, cereals, insects (incidental?), bird chicks & eggs & human rubbish.
Reproduction: Produce 1 or 2 (if mating begins in December) litters of 2 to 4 kittens (ave. 3, max. 8), following 42 to 45 day gestation. Litters produced during spring if good crop of mast, or summer/autumn if crop less bountiful – occasionally, litter in both seasons. Kittens eat solid food & leave drey at about 7 wks; weaned by 10 wks. Sexually mature at 10 months to 1 yr old.
Behaviour & Sociality: Primarily solitary; drey sharing known, individuals seem familiar with each other. Hierarchy system known between & within sexes; males not necessarily dominant to females. Peak dispersal in autumn (some in summer & spring). Spend more time on ground than Reds. Emit several acoustically distinct calls; foot stomping, tail flicking & chasing my accompany agonistic calls. During breeding season, single female may be pursued by several males. Chasing, chattering & tail-flicking often witnessed during mating chases.
Threats: Widely persecuted in the UK as part of Red squirrel conservation plans – implicated in Red squirrel & native bird decline. Many killed on roads. Persecuted as a pest to forestry. Globally, predators include foxes, wildcats, martens, goshawks, raptors, stoats, coyotes, snakes & bobcats.
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European Hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)
Size: Range from 24 to 35cm (9 ½ - 14 in.) long; 2 to 5 cm (1 – 2 in.) is tail. Weigh between 500g (1 lb) & nearly 2 kg (4 ½ lb); weight varies according to sex & season.
Colour: Spines (up to 7,000 on adult) on back, hair on underside. Generally brown in colour; spines have white/cream band. Leucistic individuals (white or pale yellow spines) known; partially leucistic & albino animals rare. No melanistic animals reported.
Distribution: Widespread (although perhaps declining) throughout lowlands of Britain (every county & most offshore islands), across much of western Europe north to southern Scandinavia & Finland, south to Mediterranean – found along treelines up to 2,000 m.
Longevity: Aging difficult. Oldest captive specimen 15 yrs. Ave. age in wild widely cited as 5 or 6 yrs, although reality probably closer to 3 yrs; the upper age limit in wild is probably 6 to 8 yrs.
Sexing: Impossible at distance. Penis situated approx. medially (where one might expect to see a belly button)
Activity: Nocturnal (some crepuscular or diurnal tendencies in sick or nursing hogs). Range up to 1km per night. Hibernate during winter if climate requires.
Dens: Build summer & winter (hibernacula) nests. Summer nests flimsy cf. hibernacula. May lie up in long grass during daytime in summer; typically exhibit low nest fidelity.
Territory: Solitary, with no evidence of territoriality. May range over relatively constant area (of up to 32 ha/79 ac. in males & 10 ha/25 ac. in females). Some scraps have been observed at feeding stations, but confrontation possibly avoided through scent-mediated mutual avoidance.
Diet: Adult beetles, earwigs & earthworms comprise bulk (~85%) of diet. Also take caterpillars, slugs, snails, bees, wasps, grasshoppers, centipedes, millipedes, flies & larvae. Plant material rare. Some evidence to suggest attacks on vertebrates (e.g. frogs, birds & small rodents) & raiding of bird nests for eggs.
Reproduction: In UK breeding season (“rut”) runs from mid May to late September. Peak births probably June/July, although some studies show peak courtship during August, leading to peak pregnancy during September. Mating usually preceded by aggressive courtship, involving circling, butting & grunting. Females polyoestrus; in favourable conditions can produce 2 litters. Ave. litter 4 or 5 (range = 2 to 11) after ~35 day gestation. Leave nest to forage with mother at 4 or 5 wks old (late-July); weaned by 6 to 8 wks & independent by 4 months. Late litters (“autumn ophans”) may have insufficient time to fatten up prior to hibernation.
Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary; often intolerant of conspecifics, although may tolerate company at feeding stations. Intriguing behaviour reported includes self-anointing (covering spines in frothy saliva-stimulant mix), running in circles, attacks on snakes, suckling from cows & carrying off fruit on spines – the latter two are widely considered unlikely.
Threats: Seemingly in decline throughout much of UK, although data are lacking. Many killed on roads; strimmers, tidy gardens, bonfires & insecticides/molluscicides widely considered detrimental to population. High level of predation by badgers. Persecuted locally where implicated in bird declines. Protected by law in much of Europe.
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Size: Adults usually between 1.7 & 2.6 m (5 ½ to 8 ½ ft) long; full-grown stag stands about 1.2 m (4ft) at the shoulder, while hinds are slightly smaller, at 1 m. Weight 90 to 260 kg (200 – 570 lbs) – seasonally variable.
Colour: Red-brown summer coat; grey-brown winter coat. Rump patch yellowish colour; stags (males) develop mane during winter. Stags have large antlers that are shed & re-grown each year.
Distribution: Found throughout Europe; introduced to parts of America, New Zealand & Australia. In UK (navitve), most common in the Scottish Highlands, although they do exist in isolated pockets across the island. Population estimated at 350,000+; growing at ca. 0.3% per year.
Longevity: Max. age limit considered to be ~25 years; records of wild individuals living beyond 13 to 15 years are rare
Sexing: During much of year males can be identified by presence (or development) of antlers. Females tend to be of slighter build than males.
Activity: Primarily crepuscular; may be seen resting, grazing or wallowing during the daytime. Some evidence of nocturnal activity in heavily persecuted populations.
Habitat: Spend daytime on open, grassy hillsides, moving to woodland at night. In Scotland during summer, primary daytime habitat is high ground with new heather growth; typically, move to lower ground during winter. Sexes live apart during most of year; hinds monopolize grassy area, stags confined to nutrient-poorer heather regions.
Territory: Non-territorial, although will defend groups of females (and thus area on which they graze) from competitors during rutting (breeding) season. Establish “stands” during the rut, which comprise a group of females that the stag will move with and defend against other males. Outside of rutting season, males move in loose groups. Home range varies according to habitat (smaller in woodland) & feeding & resting stations; may vary sexually (e.g. Scottish highlands males = 800 ha/2,000 ac.; females = 400 ha/988 ac.) & seasonally.
Diet: Opportunistic omnivores. Diet includes: grasses, heather, lichen, shoots, bark, leaves, herbs, rushes, buds, nuts, fungi, fruit & berries. Diet changes seasonally (e.g. grasses, sedges & rushes in summer, shrubs in winter). Carnivory known.
Reproduction: Rutting season covers later September to late October (peak around 10th October), with a single (rarely twins) calf produced after 8 month gestation. Most calves born in June, but may start as early as May. Calf suckled for ~6 to 9 months & is independent at about 1 year old.
Behaviour & Sociality: Hinds live in groups for most of the year (leaving only to have young). Hierarchical system present; single dominant hind with her yearlings & mature daughters from previous matings (possibly with own offspring). Males spend most of the year either solitarily or in small 'unstable' bachelor groups and feed voraciously during spring & summer. Males become antisocial during breeding season, engaging in roaring contests and parallel walking; disputes involve rearing on hind legs & kicking with front feet (when antlers developing) & locking of antlers (once antlers mature). Males and females known to use mud wallows.
Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK. Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer. Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees & flowers. Possibly biggest threat to species as a whole is the hybridization with Sika deer - two species can cross-breed to produce fertile offspring. Currently mixed data on the spread of Sika genes in the Red gene pool.
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Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)
Size: Adults between 95cm & 1.3 m (3 – 4 ft) long; males (bucks) stand 64 to 67 cm (2 ft) at shoulder. Weight between 15 to 35 kg (33 – 77 lbs).
Colour: Red-brown coat in summer, grey-brown in winter; white rump; tail virtually absent.
Distribution: Common (native) throughout UK (except Ireland) & Europe except Iceland, northern Scandinavia & Mediterranean Islands; range extends east to Asia. Apparently absent from areas of the midlands and Wales. Population increase estimated at ca. 2.3% per year; current population around 800,000+.
Longevity: Ave. in wild 5 to 7 years, with max. wild of about 12 yrs. Max. age of 20 yrs (in captivity).
Sexing: Males have antlers, which grow to max. ~30cm with 3 tines per antler typical; antlers grown in winter & shed during autumn. Sexed by shape of rump patch; females (does) have tail-like mass of hair at the base of tuft (called the "tush"), bucks don’t.
Activity: Feed throughout day & night, but peak of activity is crepuscular. Long periods where deer “lie up” to ruminate.
Habitat: Spend much of time in shelter of woodland or upland areas; will move to long grass & shrubby undergrowth for browsing; make more use of open spaces at night. Found in farmland.
Territory: Maintain exclusive territory during mid-July to mid-August (rut), may begin establishing territories during late May. Home range varies with season & sex (5 to 100 ha / 12 – 247 ac.). In good habitat defended territory ave. ~ 7 ha (non-territorial males ave. ~15 ha / 37 ac.); does ave. ~7 ha (17 ac.), which overlaps with related individuals.
Diet: Herbs, bramble, tree shoots, flowers & ivy. Some evidence that food selected based on nutritional value.
Reproduction: Rut runs from mid-July to mid-August (peak around 7th August). During rut, buck will usually mate with several does. One or two kids produced after 6 or 7 month (diapause during winter) gestation; peak kid birth in late May/early June - twins common, triplets occasional. Kids lie in grass for first week; suckled for first 2-3 months & independent by following spring (1 year old).
Behaviour & Sociality: Generally solitary; may form groups during winter; does frequently accompanied by kids & home ranges may overlap with other females. Any sociality seems scent-mediated. Bucks may fray trees & shrubs with antler & face glands during the rut. Bark, especially at dawn and dusk, when disturbed - not descriptive of sex, although males tend to bark more than females.
Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK. Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer. Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees & flowers. Study in Sweden found high kid mortality from agricultural mowers. Some evidence that they may be displaced by Muntjac (number ~20% lower when Muntiacus present) and less competitive in habitat containing Fallow, Sika and, especially in conifer plantations, Red deer.
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Size: Adults 1.3 to 1.7 m (4 – 5 ½ ft) long; buck (male) stands 85 to 110 cm (nearly 3 to 3 ½ ft) at shoulder. Weight 35 to 130 kg (77 – 287 lbs). Females (does) slightly smaller than bucks.
Colour: Red-brown coat with white spots in summer & grey-brown coat in winter, with less distinct spots. White rumps with black borders; large palmate antlers on males. Four recognised colour phases: Common (Rust with black dorsal line), Menil (Tan with brown dorsal line), Black (or Melanistic) & White (not Albino).
Distribution: Common throughout UK (naturalised, not native) & much of Central Europe; absent from Iceland & most of Scandinavia. Introduced to America & New Zealand. Bulk of British population in England and Wales; patchy distribution in northern England and Scotland. Population estimated to be growing at ca. 2% per year; current numbers put at 150,000 to 250,000.
Longevity: In wild reach 8 to 10 yrs, exceptional ages of 16yrs known; oldest captive specimen was 20 yrs old.
Sexing: Males have antlers for much of year (shed in spring), laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) & penile sheath.
Activity: Active throughout day & night, with peak at dawn & dusk. Open spaces used at night by disturbed populations. Seasonally variable activity patterns; alternate between periods of feeding and ruminating.
Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland & grassy open spaces with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding. Can be found in open conifer stands.
Territory: Non-territorial - overlapping ranges. Prepare for rut late August & early September; maintain rutting stands to which does are attracted ('lekking'), or may 'herd' females more akin to Red deer, depending on location/habitat – peak rut in October. Home range varies with season & habitat: e.g. in New Forest (UK) males = ~50 to 250 ha (123 – 618 ac.), females = ~50 to 90 ha (up to 222 ac.).
Diet: Primarily grasses; bark & shrubs may be taken during the autumn & winter.
Reproduction: Rut during October (peak around 20th) and a single calf is born after 230 day (~33 wk / 8 mo.) gestation (typically during May/June); twins rare (<1% births). Calf suckled for 6 to 9 months; stays with doe for first year.
Behaviour & Sociality: Generally speaking a gregarious species that live in groups of, at times, a hundred individuals. Social structure in does, with single dominant female, although social structure highly variable with environment. Mixed sex groups may form at good feeding sites.
Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range, although stag hunting with hounds is now illegal in the UK. Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer - Fallow more frequently hit by cars than other deer species. Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees (esp. ancient woodland), crops & flowers.
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Size: Adults 1.14 m to 1.7 m (5.5 ft) long; stag (male) stands 80 to 90 cm (3 ft) at shoulder. Adult males average 64 kg (140 lbs.), females 41 kg (90 lbs.), and newborn calf weighs ca. 3 kg (7 lbs.). Females (hinds) slightly smaller than stags. Size highly variable in accordance with habitat quality.
Colour: Two moults per year leading to red-brown coat with white spots (all ages) in summer & grey-brown or black coat (with less distinct or absent spots) in winter. White rumps with black stripe down tail and brown border; white metatarsal glands on hock. Antlers similar to Red deer, although smoother texture and max. 4 tines per antler – single front-pointing tine on each antler.
Distribution: Introduced from Japan some time ca. 1860. Now scattered populations across UK, including England, Scotland and Ireland – largest populations in Scottish Highlands. Absent from much of England and Wales. Population estimated at ca. 35,000; thought to be increasing at ca. 5.3% per year. Outside of UK, scattered populations in Europe (e.g. German, France and Czech Republic) – native range is Japan and South-east Asia.
Longevity: In wild reach 8 to 10 yrs, exceptional ages of 15 yrs known.
Sexing: Males have antlers for much of year (shed in spring), laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) & penis sheath.
Activity: Active throughout day & night, with peak at dawn & dusk. Much time spent in woodland and surrounding grassland.
Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland & grassy open spaces with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding. Can be found in open conifer stands and parks.
Territory: Non-territorial. Prepare for rut late September; maintain rutting stands between hind resting and feeding sites – rut runs during October and November. Stags can range over 40 to 60 ha (100 – 150 acres) depending on age (will tolerate subordinates on territory); hinds range less – 18 to 22 ha (45 – 54 acres).
Diet: Primarily grazes grasses, herbs, and sedges, although will browse for leaves, shoots and ivy; bark, shrubs, fruits, berries and fungi taken according to season.
Reproduction: Rut early October to early November (peak around 20th October). Single (twins very rare) calf born after roughly 8 month gestation (bulk during May & June). Calf suckled for 6 to 10 months; stays with hind for first year and is sexually mature at about 16 months old.
Behaviour & Sociality: During late spring and summer (i.e. outside of rutting season), hinds may live in small social groups with calves, although in some areas (e.g. New Forest) majority seen either solitarily or with single calf; stags live either solitarily or in small bachelor groups. Mixed sex groups of adults established during rut and can persist until hinds leave to calve in spring.
Threats: Hunted for sport in parts of their range; generally shot by stalkers. Controlled in areas with peripheral populations of Red deer – Red and Sika can hybridise to produce fertile offspring, thus diluting the ‘pure-blood’ Red gene pool. Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer. Sometimes come into conflict with forestry or private land owners because of the damage they can do to trees (esp. bark stripping in commercial plantations).
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Reeve’s Muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)
Size: Smallest deer species found wild in UK. Adults 90 cm to 1.15 m (3.8 ft) long; weigh 9 to 18 kg (20 – 40 lbs). Adults stand ca. 40 to 50 cm (1.5 ft) at shoulder. Males ‘stockier’ than females.
Colour: Uniform chestnut-to-sandy brown above, buff/paler underside and darker markings on face – tail gingery in colour. Prominent white patch on rump only apparent when tail raised (animal alarmed).
Distribution: Native to south-east China and Taiwan. Introduced to the UK from China – date of introduction uncertain, although believed to be sometime during the early 20th Century (1901 release from Woburn Park). Now common throughout Britain; current population estimated at 150,000+ and numbers thought to be increasing (ca. 8.2% per year).
Longevity: Captive deer have survived for more than 20 years (female). Accurate records from the wild reach 13 years (female), although some suggestion that some may live longer.
Sexing: Males have simple (single spike), backward-pointing antlers, which grow from prominent pedicles on the skull (striking when looking at animal’s skull) and reach 6 to 8 cm (3 in.) long. Defined annual antler cycle mediated by testosterone, despite breeding year round – average growth period for antlers 106 days. Buck has upper canines (~ 2 cm / 1 in. ) that protrude from the upper lip.
Activity: Active throughout day & night.
Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland with shrubby undergrowth for shelter & feeding. Increasingly common in urban areas, where they inhabit parks and gardens.
Territory: Maintain territory throughout the year, although ranges may overlap – animals live solitarily or in small family groups (buck, doe and most recent fawn). Size of range varies according to habitat; may be up to 30 ha (74 acres) in coniferous woodland – bucks typically range further than does.
Diet: Primarily leaves and shrubs such as bramble, ivy and hawthorn – grasses dominate diet during spring and early summer. May strip bark and fruits taken according to season; will take garden plants.
Reproduction: Breed all year round (although testes less active during summer), with single calf born after 7 month gestation (two litters per year); calf weaned by 12 wks old, although intermittent suckling may continue for sometime afterwards. Sexually mature at ca. 10 months old.
Behaviour & Sociality: Live solitarily or in small family groups. Emit loud bark (similar to a large dog) when alarmed and may make a clicking noise by grinding their teeth when alarmed or suspicious. May fray bark and saplings when marking territory and cleaning velvet off antlers – frays appear similar to those of Roe, but closer to ground.
Threats: Generally not hunted for sport (possess small, simple antlers that generally aren’t appealing to hunters). Shot on sight in many managed woodlands as considered a pest. Roads can pose threat to deer; people often killed or seriously injured upon collision with deer. Sometimes come into conflict with private land owners because of the damage they can do to crops, flowers and ancient woodland (esp. understorey). Foxes take fawns and in some areas they may account for as many as 50% of fawn deaths.
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