The fallow deer is a medium-sized cervid native to Türkiye and Iran that has been widely translocated across Europe since antiquity. The species appears to have first been introduced to Britain during the first century CE, and fallow remains recovered from Roman archaeological sites -- at Fishbourne in Sussex, constructed around 43 CE, and on the Isle of Thanet in Kent -- may represent the earliest evidence of British deer parks. Recent genetic and archaeological analysis suggests, however, that this Roman population was short-lived.
For many years, the prevailing view held that Britain's current fallow population descended from animals brought over by the Normans from Sicily during the 11th century. Genetic evidence now tells a more nuanced story: fallow deer were in fact re-introduced from Anatolia (Türkiye) towards the end of the 10th century, around 1000 CE – predating the Norman conquest. The Normans nonetheless played a crucial role in the species' subsequent history, substantially increasing population numbers and spreading fallow deer across a network of hunting parks. That they also released animals directly into the wild seems undeniable, although the number and extent of releases remains unclear and there were doubtless also unintentional escapes. The fallow deer living in Britain's countryside today are likely descended largely from medieval park escapes and releases, with later additions from parks that fell into disrepair during the two World Wars.
That which follows is a brief summary of fallow deer natural history. Certain aspects of the natural history common to all deer (e.g., antler growth and formation, chronic wasting disease, etc.) have been split from the individual overviews and placed into their own QA - this is partly to avoid repetition but also to allow more detailed coverage of the topics. A summary of the more general aspects of the biology, ecology and behaviour of Britain's deer species can be found in the Deer Overview.
The Fallow deer at a glance
Historically classified as Cervus dama -- from the Latin cervus meaning 'deer' and dama 'antelope' -- fallow have been formally recognised as distinct genus (Dama) since 1960. The word "fallow" derives from the Old English fealu, meaning 'brownish-yellow' and pertains to the primary coat colour. Most authorities, including the IUCN, recognise two distinct species across Eurasia: the widespread European fallow, Dama dama, and the Persian fallow, Dama mesopotamica, now restricted to Iran and Israel despite being once common across the Middle East. Some authors have argued, however, that the Persian fallow is insufficiently distinct to be reliably separated from the European fallow and should be considered a subspecies (i.e., Dama dama mesopotamica).
Size: Adults 1.3 to 1.7 m (4 - 5.5 ft) long; buck (male) stands 85 to 110 cm (nearly 3 to 3.5 ft) at shoulder. Weight 35 to 130 kg (77 - 287 lbs). Females (does) slightly smaller than bucks.
Appearance: A medium-sized, elegant-looking deer. The coat is typically short, bright chestnut/red-brown with white spots in summer moulting to grey-brown in winter with less distinct spots. A dark dorsal line runs the length of the back in summer coat. The white rump has black borders forming an inverse horseshoe shape, and the relatively broad tail has a black stripe down middle. There is a huge variation in coat colour, particularly in park deer, and four recognised phenotypes (also called 'morphs' or 'phases') in wild populations caused by four mutations in two genes (MC1R and ASIP):
Common – The typical form, with a chestnut-brown coat, a black dorsal stripe, and white spotting along the flanks.
Menil – A tan to gingery-brown coat with a brown (rather than black) dorsal stripe. This morph appears to result from a mutation in the MC1R gene, causing an amino acid substitution of glycine to aspartic acid.
Black (Melanistic) – A coat ranging from charcoal to jet black, fading to grey or reddish-brown on the flanks and throat. Lighter brown spots are sometimes visible on the upper flanks. This morph is associated with a mutation in the ASIP gene.
White – True albinos, characterised by a pink nose and red eyes, occur occasionally, but the majority of white fallow are non-albino. Contrary to common misconception, these animals are not leucistic. Leucism is a distinct genetic condition in which reduced pigment deposition -- caused by mutations affecting pigment production or melanocyte development and distribution -- typically produces a washed-out appearance rather than a pure white coat. White fallow deer retain the ability to produce pigments and possess functional melanocytes. Genetic analysis suggests their colouration instead results from a separate MC1R mutation causing a leucine-to-proline amino acid substitution. White individuals are now relatively common in some areas, particularly the New Forest.
One population showing a genetic predisposition to increased hair growth that presented as a longer-than-normal coat (so-called 'long-haired fallow') was studied in Shropshire during 1980s, although this population may now be extinct.
Distribution: Probably most widely distributed deer in world thanks for introductions by humans. Common throughout UK, where it's naturalised, and much of Central Europe; absent from Iceland and most of Scandinavia. Introduced to America and New Zealand. Bulk of British population in southern England and eastern Wales; patchy distribution in northern England, western Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Population estimated to be growing at ca. 2% per year; 2008 data numbers put at 150,000 to 250,000.
Longevity: In wild reach 8 to 10 yrs, exceptional ages of 16 yrs known; oldest captive specimen was 20 yrs old.
Sexing: Males have antlers for much of year (shed in spring), laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple) and penile sheath. Males are "bucks", females "does", and young "fawns".
Antler Cycle: Antlers cast late March to early June (peak mid-April to mid-May); velvet shed August/September.
Activity: Active throughout day and night, with peak at dawn and dusk. Open spaces used ony at night by disturbed populations. Seasonally variable activity patterns; alternate between periods of feeding and ruminating.
Habitat: Areas of mixed or deciduous woodland and grassy open spaces with shrubby undergrowth for shelter and feeding. Can be found in open conifer stands.
Territory: Non-territorial with overlapping ranges. Prepare for rut late August and early September; maintain rutting stands to which does are attracted (lekking), or may "herd" females more akin to Red deer, depending on location/habitat - peak rut in October. Home range varies with season and habitat: e.g., in New Forest (UK) males = ~50 to 250 ha (123 - 618 ac.), females = ~50 to 90 ha (up to 222 ac.).
Diet: Primarily grasses and bramble; bark and shrubs may be taken during the autumn and winter.
Reproduction: Rut during October with a peak around during the middle of the month, although highly dependent on temperature; bucks rut hard when it's cold and go quiet and often disperse when temperatures rise. A single fawn is born after 230 day (~33 wk / 8 mo.) gestation (typically during May/June); twins rare (<1% births). Fawn suckled for 6 to 9 months; stays with doe for first year. During the rut, bucks produce a loud rasping "groan" or "belch" (click below to listen), the frequency of which betrays the caller's size to both competitors and females, although some evidence that bucks may be able to "cheat" and make themselves sound bigger than they are.
A Fallow deer (Dama dama) buck groaning (belching) during the rut in the UK - Credit: Marc Baldwin
Behaviour and Sociality: Generally speaking a gregarious species that live in groups of, at times, a hundred individuals. Social structure in does, with single dominant female, although social structure highly variable with environment. Mixed sex groups may form at good feeding sites. Females and fawns make short "meeping" calls while gathered in group and when herd is moving (click below to listen).
While gathered in a herd, Fallow does and fawns will make a "meeping" or "chirping" call. As this call is frequently observed while the herd is on the move, it is believed to be social contact calling to help the group keep together. It seems equally likely to have the potential for exchange of social information, akin to that observed in some birds. - Credit: Marc Baldwin
Threats & impacts: Fallow deer are widely hunted for sport -- both for antler trophies and meat -- across most regions of the UK, though hunting does not appear to have a significant impact on overall numbers. Roads present another notable threat: collisions with vehicles frequently result in serious injury or death for both deer and people, and fallow appear to be struck by cars more often than any other deer species in England. Traditionally, many authors have described fallow as a naturalised species – one that has integrated into Britain's countryside without causing significant damage to its habitats. In recent decades, however, populations have risen sharply, and fallow deer are increasingly coming into conflict with land managers, particularly those involved in forestry and woodland regeneration or conservation. This growing pressure suggests the species may now be transitioning from naturalised to genuinely invasive.
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