The fallow deer is a medium-sized cervid native to Türkiye and Iran that has been widely translocated across Europe since antiquity. The species appears to have first been introduced to Britain during the first century CE, and fallow remains recovered from Roman archaeological sites -- at Fishbourne in Sussex, constructed around 43 CE, and on the Isle of Thanet in Kent -- may represent the earliest evidence of British deer parks. Recent genetic and archaeological analysis suggests, however, that this Roman population was short-lived.
For many years, the prevailing view held that Britain's current fallow population descended from animals brought over by the Normans from Sicily during the 11th century. Genetic evidence now tells a more nuanced story: fallow deer were in fact re-introduced from Anatolia (Türkiye) towards the end of the 10th century, around 1000 CE – predating the Norman conquest. The Normans nonetheless played a crucial role in the species' subsequent history, substantially increasing population numbers and spreading fallow deer across a network of hunting parks. That they also released animals directly into the wild seems undeniable, although the number and extent of releases remains unclear and there were doubtless also unintentional escapes. The fallow deer living in Britain's countryside today are likely descended largely from medieval park escapes and releases, with later additions from parks that fell into disrepair during the two World Wars.
That which follows is a brief summary of fallow deer natural history. Certain aspects of the natural history common to all deer (e.g., antler growth and formation, chronic wasting disease, etc.) have been split from the individual overviews and placed into their own QA - this is partly to avoid repetition but also to allow more detailed coverage of the topics. A summary of the more general aspects of the biology, ecology and behaviour of Britain's deer species can be found in the Deer Overview.
The Fallow deer at a glance
Historically classified as Cervus dama -- from the Latin cervus meaning 'deer' and dama meaning 'antelope' -- fallow deer have been formally recognised as a distinct genus (Dama) since 1960. The word "fallow" derives from the Old English fealu, meaning 'brownish-yellow', and pertains to the primary coat colour. Most authorities, including the IUCN, recognise two distinct species across Eurasia: the widespread European fallow, Dama dama, and the Persian fallow, Dama mesopotamica, now restricted to Iran and Israel despite being once common across the Middle East. Some authors have argued, however, that the Persian fallow is insufficiently distinct to be reliably separated from the European fallow and should be considered a subspecies (i.e., Dama dama mesopotamica).
Size: Adult (>2 years old) length range is 1.3–1.7 m (4.3–5.6 ft); the buck (male) stands 85–110 cm (2.8–3.6 ft) at shoulder, while the doe (female) is slightly shorter at 73–91 cm (2.4–3 ft.). Weight is variable across their global range and sources referencing weights of up to 150 kg (330 lbs) are presumably referring to the larger-bodied Persian species. In Britain, adult bucks typically weigh 50–70 kg (110–154 lbs); females somewhat lighter at 35–50 kg (77–110 lbs).
Appearance: A medium-sized, elegant-looking deer. The coat is typically short, bright chestnut/red-brown with white spots in summer moulting to grey-brown in winter with less distinct spots. A dark dorsal line runs the length of the back in summer coat. The white rump has black borders forming an inverse horseshoe shape, and the relatively broad tail has a black stripe down middle. There is a huge variation in coat colour, particularly in park deer, and four recognised phenotypes (also called 'morphs' or 'phases') in wild populations caused by four mutations in two genes (MC1R and ASIP):
Common – The typical form, with a chestnut-brown coat, a black dorsal stripe, and white spotting along the flanks.
Menil – A tan to gingery-brown coat with a brown (rather than black) dorsal stripe. This morph appears to result from a mutation in the MC1R gene, causing an amino acid substitution of glycine to aspartic acid.
Black (Melanistic) – A coat ranging from charcoal to jet black, fading to grey or reddish-brown on the flanks and throat. Lighter brown spots are sometimes visible on the upper flanks. This morph is associated with a mutation in the ASIP gene.
White – True albinos, characterised by a pink nose and red eyes, occur occasionally, but the majority of white fallow are non-albino. Contrary to common misconception, these animals are not leucistic. Leucism is a distinct genetic condition in which reduced pigment deposition -- caused by mutations affecting pigment production or melanocyte development and distribution -- typically produces a washed-out appearance rather than a pure white coat. White fallow deer retain the ability to produce pigments and possess functional melanocytes. Genetic analysis suggests their colouration instead results from a separate MC1R mutation causing a leucine-to-proline amino acid substitution. White individuals are now relatively common in some areas, particularly the New Forest.
One population showing a genetic predisposition to increased hair growth that presented as a longer-than-normal coat (so-called 'long-haired fallow') was studied in Shropshire during 1980s, although this population may now be extinct.
Distribution & Population: Native to the eastern Mediterranean, fallow are now probably the most widely distributed deer in the world thanks to introductions by humans, having been transported across the globe to countries including North America, Argentina, the Falklands, New Zealand, Australia, much of Europe and, of course, Britain. Now common throughout the UK, where it's naturalised (bordering on invasive). The bulk of the population is in southern England and eastern Wales; distribution in northern England, western Wales, Scotland and Ireland remains patchy. Data published in 2008 put the population at 150,000–250,000, while the Mammal Society's 2018 assessment gave a range of 194,000 to 343,000, with a likely figure of around 264,000. The population was thought to be growing at around 2% per year in 2008, but no more recent assessment exists.
Longevity: Wild individuals typically reach 8 to 10 years, though exceptional ages of up to 16 years are known. The oldest captive specimen was 20 years old.
Sexing: Males have three distinguishing features – antlers (bony headgear that's shed and regrown annually), a laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple), and a penile sheath. Males are "bucks", females "does", and young "fawns".
Antler Cycle: Most bucks cast their antlers between mid-April and mid-May, but timing depends on age and body condition so casting can run from late March to early June. While growing, the antlers are encased in a furry skin (velvet) rich in blood vessels that bring nutrients to the developing bone tissue – the velvet's shed in August/September.
Activity: Active throughout day and night, with a peak at dawn and dusk (crepuscular). Much of the daytime is spent resting in woodland, emerging around dusk to feed in more open spaces. Highly disturbed (hunted) populations become increasingly nocturnal. Overall activity levels are also seasonally variable, with most concentrated into a few weeks of the autumn breeding season (rut). As with all deer, fallow are ruminants and divide their time between periods of feeding and ruminating.
Habitat: Fallow are a species of mixed or broadleaved woodland and grassy open spaces such as parks and farmland where they mix with livestock. Shrubby undergrowth is attractive for both sheltering and feeding. They can be found in open conifer stands, though typically only while resting.
Territory: A non-territorial species with overlapping ranges outside of the rut, when males defend a small area (lek) from competing bucks. During late August and early September, males begin establishing leks to which females are attracted. Home range varies with season and habitat, even in a single area. In the New Forest in Hampshire, for example, males move over 50–250 ha (123–618 acres) and females 50–90 ha (123–222 acres) depending on season and management activities.
Diet: Grasses contribute the bulk of the diet (>60% between March and September), supplemented with herbs, broadleaved browse, bramble, holly, ivy, and heather. Bark and shrubs may be taken during the autumn and winter, along with nuts and fruit. They will also readily take cereal crops in agricultural regions.
Reproduction: Fallow rut during October, activity peaking around the middle of the month, although activity and duration are highly dependent on temperature; bucks rut hard when it's cold, going quiet and sometimes even dispersing when temperatures rise. The species typically leks, but may try to herd females akin to red deer in some habitats. A single fawn is born between May and July after a gestation lasting around 230 days (7.5 months). Most females produce a single fawn that's suckled for 6–9 months and remains with the doe for the first year; twins account for <1% of births. During the rut, bucks produce a loud rasping "groan" or "belch" (click below to listen). The frequency of this belch betrays the caller's size to both competitors and females, though there is some evidence that bucks may be able to "cheat" and make themselves sound bigger than they are.
A Fallow deer (Dama dama) buck groaning (belching) during the rut in the UK - Credit: Marc Baldwin
Behaviour and Sociality: Generally a gregarious species that lives in small mixed- or single-sex groups, though some "super herds" of over 100 individuals have been recorded. Does maintain a social structure within the herd throughout the year, and herds have a single dominant female, though this is variable with the environment. Outside of the rut, adult bucks tend to live in bachelor groups that have a hierarchical structure which fluctuates as antlers are lost. Females and fawns make short "meeping" calls while gathered in a group and when the herd is moving (click below to listen).
While gathered in a herd, Fallow does and fawns will make a "meeping" or "chirping" call. As this call is frequently observed while the herd is on the move, it is believed to be social contact calling to help the group keep together. It seems equally likely to have the potential for exchange of social information, akin to that observed in some birds. - Credit: Marc Baldwin
Threats & impacts: Fallow deer are widely hunted for sport -- both for antler trophies and meat -- across most regions of the UK, though hunting does not appear to have a significant impact on overall numbers. Roads present another notable threat: collisions with vehicles frequently result in serious injury or death for both deer and people, and fallow appear to be struck by cars more often than any other deer species in England. Traditionally, many authors have described fallow as a naturalised species – one that has integrated into Britain's countryside without causing significant damage to its habitats. In recent decades, however, populations have risen sharply, and fallow deer are increasingly coming into conflict with land managers, particularly those involved in forestry and woodland regeneration or conservation. This growing pressure suggests the species may now be transitioning from naturalised to genuinely invasive.
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